SOC 001 Final

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means of production

The means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but also the social relations between producers

bourgeoisie

People who own companies, land, or stocks (shares) and use these to generate economic returns

proletariat

People who sell their labor for wages, according to Marx.

surplus value

In Marxist theory, the value of a worker's labor power left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker.

communism

A social system based on everyone owning the means of production and sharing in the wealth it produces.

status

The social honor or prestige a particular group is accorded by other members of a society. \_______ groups normally display distinct styles of life—patterns of behavior that the members of a group follow. \________ privilege may be positive or negative.

pariah groups

Groups who suffer from negative status discrimination—they are looked down on by most other members of society.

social mobility

Movement of individuals or groups between different social positions

intergenerational mobility

Movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another.

intragenerational mobility

Movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career

structural mobility

Mobility resulting from changes in the number and kinds of jobs available in a society

exchange mobility

The exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down

cultural capital

Noneconomic or cultural resources that parents pass down to their children, such as language or knowledge. These resources contribute to the process of social reproduction, according to Bourdieu.

absolute poverty

Not meeting the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence.

relative poverty

Poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society.

poverty line

An official government measure to define those living in poverty in the United States.

working poor

People who work but whose earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line.

feminization of poverty

An increase in the proportion of the poor who are female.

culture of poverty

The thesis, popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not a result of individual inadequacies but is instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized. The \________________ refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles, habits, and traditions that are common among people living under conditions of material deprivation.

contradictory class locations

Positions in the class structure, particularly routine whitecollar and lower managerial jobs, that share characteristics with the class positions both above and below them.

globalization

The development of social and economic relationships stretching worldwide. In current times, we are all influenced by organizations and social networks located thousands of miles away. A key part of the study of \_________ is the emergence of a world system—for some purposes, we need to regard the world as forming a single social order.

global inequality

The systematic differences in wealth and power among

neoliberalism

The economic belief that free-market forces, achieved by minimizing government restrictions on business, provide the only route to economic growth

dependency theories

Marxist theories of economic development that argue that the poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and by the transnational (or multinational) corporations that are based in wealthy countries.

world-systems theory

Pioneered by Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory emphasizes the interconnections among countries based on the expansion of a capitalist world economy. This economy is made up of core, semiperiphery, and periphery countries.

core

According to world-systems theory, describes the most advanced industrial countries, which take the lion's share of profits in the world economic system

periphery

Describes countries that have a marginal role in the world economy and are thus dependent on the core producing societies for their trading relationships.

semiperiphery

Describes countries that supply sources of labor and raw materials to the core industrial countries and the world economy but are not themselves fully industrialized societies.

Theory of Global Capitalism

A transnational capitalist class is increasingly the the major player in the global economy; global dominance rather than by states

race

A socially constructed category rooted in the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans, associated with phenotype and ancestry.

ethnicity

Cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others. A(n) \_______ group is one whose members share a distinct awareness of a common cultural identity, separating them from other groups. In virtually all societies, \________ differences are associated with variations in power and material wealth. Where \_______ differences are also racial, such divisions are sometimes especially pronounced.

discrimination

Behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others

prejudice

The holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are resistant to change even in the face of new information. May be either positive or negative.

stereotyping

Thinking in terms of fixed and inflexible categories.

immigration

The movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement.

segregation

The practice of keeping racial and ethnic groups physically separate, thereby maintaining the superior position of the dominant group

assimilation

The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture.

melting pot

The idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources.

pluralism

A model for ethnic relations in which all ethnic groups in the united States retain their independent and separate identities yet share equally in the rights and powers of citizenship.

multiculturalism

A condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life.

Racialization

the process in which a race is assigned to a group

De Jure segregation

separation that was mandated by law and enforced by the government

De Facto segregation

a situation in which legislation does not overtly segregate by race, but nevertheless segregation continues

Residential Segregation

Exists by design and is a major reason for the concentration of poverty and related SES issues of segregated groups through institutional mechanisms of exclusion (ex. redlining)

One-Drop Rule

Defined who is black: if you have any traceable black heritage you are black

sex

The biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females and males.

gender

Social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex. Refers not to the physical attributes distinguishing men and women but to socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity.

intersectionality

A sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships.

social construction of gender

The learning of gender roles through socialization and interaction with others.

feminist theory

A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women.

liberal feminism

The form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality is produced by unequal access to civil rights and certain social resources, such as education and employment, based on sex. Tend to seek solutions through changes in legislation that ensure that the rights of individuals are protected

radical feminism

The form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social and economic life.

patriarchy

The dominance of men over women.

Socialist Feminism

argues that capitalist society is oppressive toward ethnic minorities, the working class, and the poor. Like radical feminism, it also recognizes the fundamental oppression of women in patriarchal societies. Adherents of this perspective depart from Marxists theorists because they believe that dismantling the capitalist hierarchical system is not sufficient to eradicate inequalities; gendered systems of stratification also must be eradicated

black feminism

A strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantages of gender, class, and race that shape the experiences of nonwhite women

transnational feminism

A branch of feminist theory that highlights the way that global processes—including colonialism, racism, and imperialism—shape gender relations and hierarchies.

postmodern feminism

The feminist perspective that challenges the idea of a unitary basis of identity and experience shared by all women. Reject the claim that a grand theory can explain the position of women in society, or that there is any single, universal essence or category of "woman." Instead, it encourages the acceptance of many different standpoints as equally valid.

occupational sex segregation

The concentration of men and women in different occupations.

human capital theory

The argument that individuals make investments in their own "human capital" to increase their productivity and earnings.

family

A group of individuals related to one another by blood ties, marriage, or adoption, who form an economic unit, the adult members of which are responsible for the upbringing of children

nuclear family

A family group consisting of two adults and dependent children.

extended family

A family group consisting of more than two generations of relatives living either within the same household or very close to one another.

families of orientation

The families into which individuals are born. Also known as families of origin.

families of procreation

The families individuals initiate through marriage, cohabitation, or by having children.

matrilocal

A family system in which the husband is expected to live near the wife's parents.

patrilocal

A family system in which the wife is expected to live near the husband's parents.

primary socialization

The process by which children learn the cultural norms and expectations for behavior of the society into which they are born. Occurs largely in the family.

personality stabilization

According to functionalist theory, the family plays a crucial role in assisting its adult members emotionally. Marriage is the arrangement through which personalities are supported and kept healthy.

Functionalist Perspective of Family

Sexual division of labor, husband and wife fulfill separate function; families perform functions essential to the maintenance of society: regulation of sexual behavior and reproduction, socialization, education, status conferral, economic activity, protection, affection and compaionship

Feminist Perspective of Family

Institution of marriage ensures domination of women by men, focus on unequal power relationship in marriage (patriarchal), the domestic sexual division of labor is a production of industrial capitalism

"Second Shift"

In dual-career households, women work twice as much due to the unequal distribution of housework

"Concerted Cultivation"

middle class parenting style with an emphasis on autonomy, critical thinking, and highlights the importance of, and can afford, extracurricular activities outside of school

"Natural Growth"

Working class parenting style with an emphasis on obedience to authority with few organized activities outside of school

hidden curriculum

Traits of behavior or attitudes that are learned at school but not included in the formal curriculum—for example, gender differences.

tracking

Dividing students into groups that receive different instruction on the basis of assumed similarities in ability or attainment

stereotype threat

The idea that when African American students believe they are being judged not as individuals but as members of a negatively stereotyped social group, they will do worse on tests.

stereotype promise

a phenomenon where being viewed through the lens of a positive stereotype may lead one to perform in such a way that confirms the positive stereotype, thereby enhancing performance

credentialism

Adherents to this way of thinking place less emphasis on the content of an official curriculum. They argue that the specific skills and information that students learn in the classroom are much less relevant to their later achievements than the actual diploma. The primary social function of mass education derives from the need for degrees to determine one's credentials for a job, even if the work involved has nothing to do with the education one has received

social reproduction

The process of perpetuating values, norms, and social practices through socialization, which leads to structural continuity over time

Social Function of Schools

socialization, social integration, social placement, and social and cultural innovation

secularization

A process of decline in the influence of religion. Can refer to levels of involvement with religious organizations (such as rates of church attendance), the social and material influence wielded by religious organizations, and the degree to which people hold religious beliefs

religion

A set of beliefs adhered to by the members of a community, incorporating symbols regarded with a sense of awe or wonder together with ritual practices. Do not universally involve a belief in supernatural entities

churches

Large bodies of people belonging to an established religious organization. The term is also used to refer to the place in which religious ceremonies are carried out.

sects

Religious movements that break away from orthodoxy

denomination

A religious sect that has lost its revivalist dynamism and become an institutionalized body, commanding the adherence of significant numbers of people.

cults

Fragmentary religious groupings to which individuals are loosely affiliated but that lack any permanent structure.

alienation

The sense that our own abilities as human beings are taken over by other entities. The term was originally used by Karl Marx to refer to the projection of human powers onto gods. Subsequently, he used the term to refer to the loss of workers' control over the nature and products of their labor.

Marx on Religion

religion helps divert attention of the exploited workers from the conditions of their own misery, hence, it legitimizes social inequality.

Durkheim on Religion

Religion is the disguised worship of society. Is a social construction. An integrative force that helps people integrate into society by providing a collective consciousness, or a set of morals that are shared by members in a society. Religion and science both seek to understand nature, humans, and society (same goal)

sacred

That which inspires attitudes of awe or reverence among believers in a given set of religious ideas

profane

That which belongs to the mundane, everyday world.

religious economy

A theoretical framework within the sociology of religion that argues that religions can be fruitfully understood as organizations in competition with one another for followers.

civil religion

A set of religious beliefs through which a society interprets its own history in light of some conception of ultimate reality.

new religious movements

The broad range of religious and spiritual groups, cults, and sects that have emerged alongside mainstream religions. Range from spiritual and self-help groups within the New Age movement to exclusive sects such as the Hare Krishnas.

Weber on Religion

Religious doctrines influence individual psychology, which in turn affects economic action and structure. Protestants were disproportionately represented in large-scale, profit-oriented, industrial enterprise due to capitalism emerging from the "Protestant Ethic" (the systematic pursuit of salvation based on diligent labor in a calling), Calvinism especially.

participatory democracy

A system of democracy in which all members of a group or community participate collectively in making major decisions.

direct democracy

A form of participatory democracy that allows citizens to vote directly on laws and policies.

liberal democracies

A type of representative democracy in which elected representatives hold power.

nation-state

Particular types of states, characteristic of the modern world, in which governments have sovereign power within defined territorial areas, and populations are citizens who know themselves to be part of single nations

sovereignty

The undisputed political rule of a state over a given territorial area.