History of Skyscrapers Test 1

What is a skyscraper, and how do definitions differ between architects?

• Thomas Tallmadge: Tall building with skeleton construction.

• Winston Weissman: Tall office building.

• Francisco Mujica: Building of great height on a steel skeleton with high-speed electric elevators.

• Other terms: French “gratte-ciel,” Italian “grattocielo,” German “wolkenkratzer” – all mean “sky-scratcher.”

Name the “pre-skyscraper” and describe its characteristics.

Jayne Building, Philadelphia (1848–1850): 129 ft, load-bearing masonry, wooden floors/ceilings, cast iron columns, no elevators (hoisting devices instead), Venetian Gothic influence, demolished 1957–1958.

Who designed the First Equitable Building, and why is it significant?

• Architects: Arthur Gilman & Edward Kendall.

• Owner: Henry Baldwin Hyde (insurance).

• Significance: First “elevator building,” load-bearing masonry, 2nd Empire style, mansard roof, steam elevators, split-level floors for commerce and banking, 130 ft tall, expanded later by Kendall and George B. Post.

What are the technical details of the Western Union Building?

• Architect: George B. Post.

• Height: 230 ft.

• Features: Load-bearing masonry, iron roof, all city wires filtered through, rebuilt by Henry Hardenbergh, later fire destroyed it.

Q5: Describe the New York Tribune Building and its architectural style.

• Architect: Richard Morris Hunt.

• Height: 260 ft, tallest in NYC in 1870s.

• Style: Neo-Grec.

• Features: Thick masonry walls, clock tower, dormer windows, three elevators, expanded over time.

Explain the difference between cast iron and wrought iron.

• Cast Iron: Brittle, poured into molds, good under vertical compression, poor under tension. Used in facades, warehouses, and fire towers.

• Wrought Iron: Heated and worked with tools, stronger, handles tension and compression, used for structural components like bridges.

• Key figures: James Bogardus (cast iron facades, fire towers, warehouses), Daniel Badger (Architectural Iron Works).

What were the main contributions of James Bogardus?

• Developed cast iron facades, including Laing Stores (1849) and Santa Catalina Sugar Warehouse (1858–1860).

• Designed cast iron fire alarm towers in NYC.

• His work helped lead toward skeleton frame construction.

Describe the Haughwout Building.

• Architect: John P. Gaynor.

• Location/Date: New York, 1856–1857.

• Features: Cast iron facade, first building with a public elevator, five stories, Venetian palace-inspired design, steam-powered elevator added later.

Who developed skeleton frame construction in the US, and what buildings demonstrate it?

• William LeBaron Jenney: The Fair Store, Chicago (1890–1891), first steel skeleton frame covered in fireproofing.

• Home Insurance Building, Chicago (1884–1885): Often cited as first skyscraper using skeleton frame.

• Later examples: 860 & 880 North Lake Shore Drive, Chicago (Mies van der Rohe), Dime Savings Bank, Detroit.

Explain how elevators changed residential hierarchy in buildings.

• Before elevators: wealthy on first floors, middle-class in middle, servants on top floors (hottest/coldest).

• After elevators: wealthy preferred top floors for light, air, and reduced street noise; bottom floors less desirable.

Name the two varieties of iron in the 19th century and their characteristics.

• Cast Iron: Brittle, molded, good under vertical load.

• Wrought Iron: Strong, worked by tools, handles tension and compression.

Who invented the Bessemer steel process, and why was it significant?

• Inventor: Henry Bessemer (1856, England).

• Significance: Allowed mass production of steel, brought quickly to US, steel still expensive and used mainly for bridges and structural engineering.

Describe the US Capitol Dome’s construction.
A:

• Architect: Thomas Ustick Walter; Engineers: Montgomery Meigs & August Schoenborn.

• Material: Cast iron middle truss, outer wood shell, inner plaster shell.

• Time: 1856–1864.

• Support: Cantilevered triangles at base.

• Comparison: Similar to St. Isaac’s Cathedral, Russia.

What is the “zeitgeist,” and how did it influence architecture?

• Concept by Hegel: “spirit of the times” influences human actions and cultural creations.

• In architecture, it explains why buildings of an era share stylistic similarities.

• Giedion later discussed how 19th-century zeitgeist influenced future architectural advancements.

Define and give examples of Neo-Classicism, Gothic Revival, Beaux-Arts Classicism, and Iron & Glass Architecture.

• Neo-Classicism: Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Altes Museum, Berlin (1822–1828).

• Gothic Revival: Charles Barry & A.W.N. Pugin, Houses of Parliament, London (1836–1860).

• Beaux-Arts/Second Empire: Charles Garnier, Paris Opera House (1862–1875).

• Iron & Glass: Henri Labrouste, Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, Paris (1843–1850).

What is eclecticism in 19th-century architecture?

• Mixing elements from Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Gothic styles.

• Example: Thomas Cole, The Architects Dream (1840).

• Allowed architects to create historically-informed but innovative designs.

Describe early high-rise building materials and construction methods.

• Load-bearing masonry: Used in Jayne, Equitable, Western Union, and Tribune buildings.

• Iron frames: Cast iron for facades, wrought iron for tension/compression members.

• Skeleton frame: Steel frames covered with fireproofing, eventually enabling taller skyscrapers.

Explain the technical innovations of the Eiffel Tower.

• Designer: Gustave Eiffel, 1889, Paris World’s Fair.

• 300 m (984 ft) tall, wrought iron, three floors, hydraulic elevators (failed in winter).

• Symbolized France’s resurgence after Franco-Prussian War.

• Controversial due to height and modern materials; initially temporary.

Name the tallest buildings/structures from 19th to 20th centuries.

• Eiffel Tower (1889): 984 ft, tallest for ~40 years.

• Masonic Temple, Chicago (1890–92): 21 stories, 302 ft, first “tallest building.”

• Singer Building, NYC (1908–09): 612 ft.

• Sears Tower/Willis Tower, Chicago (1970–74): 1451 ft, 110 stories.

• Petronas Towers, Malaysia (1998): 1483 ft, 88 stories.

• Burj Khalifa, Dubai: 2717 ft, 160 stories.

Who invented the first safety elevator, and when?

• Elisha Graves Otis, 1854 at New York’s Crystal Palace.

• Steam-powered with a safety brake that stops if the cable breaks.

• Demonstrated publicly; patented in 1861.

How did hydraulic elevators work, and what were their limitations?

• Powered by water pressure (piston/plunger).

• Introduced in 1880s.

• Limited by freezing in winter; could become temporarily inoperable.

Describe the electric elevator development.

• Late 1890s, Morse-Williams model.

• Not fully enclosed; operated by a person.

• Automatic elevators appeared in the early 1900s after strikes forced adoption.

How did elevator technology shift the desirability of floor levels in buildings?

• Before: wealthy on first floors, servants on top.

• After elevators: top floors most prestigious, offering sunlight, air, and privacy.

Name and describe the first building with a public elevator.

• Haughwout Building, New York, 1856–1857

• Architect: John P. Gaynor.

• Cast iron facade from Daniel Badger’s factory.

• Steam-powered elevator; five stories.

Who was James Bogardus, and what was his significance?

• Pioneer of cast iron architecture in the US.

• Projects: Laing Stores (1849), Santa Catalina Warehouse (1858–1860), fire alarm towers.

• Early prefabrication; contributed to skeleton frame development.

Explain the McCullough Shot Tower.

• NYC, 1855, James Bogardus.

• Height: 174 ft, base diameter: 24 ft.

• Iron frame with brick infill.

• Used for producing lead shots.

Describe the Phoenix Shot Tower.

• Baltimore, Maryland, 1828.

• Height: 234 ft.

• Dropped molten lead to produce shots.

What is the difference between infill walls and curtain walls?

• Infill walls: Non-load-bearing, sit between structural members (like brick between iron frame).

• Curtain walls: Hung from skeleton frame; can be glass or masonry; don’t support floors.

What was the significance of the Laing Stores, New York (1849)?

• First cast iron facade prefabricated in a factory.

• Greek Revival style.

• Two facade walls; large cornice, infill windows.

• Partially stolen/demolished later; preserved elements incorporated into Bogardus Building by Beyer Blinder Belle.

Describe the Santa Catalina Sugar Warehouse.

• Havana, Cuba, 1858–1860.

• James Bogardus; largest cast iron building of its time.

• Brick curtain walls supported by iron frame.

• Used for sugar storage and distribution via rail.

How did cast iron facades contribute to fire hazards?

• Iron melts at high temperatures.

• Chicago Fire demonstrated their vulnerability; buildings literally melted despite public perception of iron being “fireproof.”

What is the significance of the United States Capitol Dome?

• Washington, D.C., 1856–1864.

• Architect: Thomas U. Walter; Engineers: Meigs & Schoenborn.

• Cast iron truss middle shell, wooden outer shell, plaster inner shell.

• Added after wings to balance appearance.

• Supported by cantilevered triangles.

Who were major cast iron front manufacturers in the 19th century?

• James Bogardus (1800–1874).

• Daniel Badger (1806–1884), Architectural Iron Works.

Explain “puddling” in wrought iron production.

• Henry Court, 1784, England.

• Method for making wrought iron stronger and workable.

• Heated and hammered, allowing structural use.

What is the Bessemer process?

• Invented 1856, England.

• Mass-produced steel by blowing air through molten iron.

• Expensive initially; used in bridges and engineering projects.

What is Beaux-Arts/Second Empire Style?

French academic style emphasizing grandeur, ornamentation, symmetry.

Describe Iron and Glass architecture.

Prefabricated metal structures, often with large windows or glass roofs.Led to Crystal Palace (1850–1851, Joseph Paxton).

What was the Crystal Palace, and why was it significant?

• London, 1850–1851, Joseph Paxton.

• World's Fair building; prefabricated, iron and glass.

• Temporary; inspired similar designs, including in NYC.

Define “eclecticism” and give an example.

• Combining elements of different architectural styles.

• Example: Thomas Cole, The Architect’s Dream (1840).

What is the significance of New York’s borough development for skyscrapers?

• Manhattan: original Dutch town, rigid street grid (1807), Wall Street named for former wooden wall.

• Concentration of commerce, finance, and high-rise development.

What role did the elevated train (L train) play in Chicago?

• Solved traffic congestion.

• Initially steam, later electrified.

• Influenced the location and height of early skyscrapers.

Describe the “Ladies Mile” in NYC.

• Shopping district with department stores.

• Popular in late 19th century; influenced high-rise retail development

Explain the role of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH).

• Founded 1969 by Lynn Beedle at Lehigh University.

• Defines skyscraper measurement standards: architectural top, highest occupied floor, height to tip.

• Resolves controversies like Trump Tower height.

How do CTBUH definitions differ from previous methods?

• Previously: height to roof.

• Now: architectural top (includes spire), highest occupied floor, tip (includes antennas).

Discuss controversies in measuring skyscraper height (example: Trump Tower).

• Developers counted underground floors as part of story count.

• CTBUH redefined starting point as lowest open-air pedestrian entrance.

Who designed the Sears Tower (Willis Tower), and what were key stats?

• Architects: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.

• Bruce Graham, Fazlur Khan.

• Height: 1451 ft, 110 stories, Chicago.

• Top observatory view spans three states.

What is the Home Insurance Building, and why is it important?

• Chicago, Illinois, 1884–1885, architect: William LeBaron Jenney.

• Often called the “first skyscraper” using steel skeleton frame.

• Steel frame supported floors, walls could be non-load-bearing.

• Allowed taller buildings than masonry alone.

Describe The Fair Store in Chicago.

• 1890–1891, architect: William LeBaron Jenney.

• Steel skeleton frame, covered in fireproof masonry and clay tiles.

• Early example of safe, tall commercial building.

Describe 860 & 880 North Lake Shore Drive.

• Chicago, Illinois, 1948–1951, architect: Mies van der Rohe.

• Materials: steel, glass, concrete.

• WYSIWYG design: what you see is what you get.

• Curtain wall protects skeleton and adds finished look.

Name major types of iron in 19th-century construction.

1. Cast Iron: brittle, strong vertically, weak horizontally, melted and poured into molds.

2. Wrought Iron: stronger, worked with heat and tools, handles tension and compression.

What were fire alarm towers in NYC?

• Cast iron towers, 1850s, designed by James Bogardus.

• Cheap, easy to build, sturdier than wood.

• Served as lookouts for firemen.

Describe the evolution of skyscraper definitions.

• Thomas Tallmadge: tall building of skeleton construction.

• Winston Weissman: tall office building.

• Francisco Mujica: steel skeleton, high-speed elevator, ~20 stories.

How did the French, Italian, and German languages define skyscraper?

• French: Gratte-ciel (scratch sky).

• Italian: Grattocielo (scratch sky).

• German: Wolkenkratzer (cloud scratcher).

Describe the role of elevators in skyscraper development.

• Safety elevators made top floors accessible/prestigious.

• Allowed taller, functional office/residential buildings.

• Key inventors: Otis (safety), Morse-Williams (electric).

Who was Hugh Ferriss, and what did he depict?

• 1929, The Metropolis of Tomorrow.

• Illustrated conceptual skyscrapers and overhead trafficways.

• Emphasized zoning, shadows, and city planning for tall buildings.

What was the significance of the Burj Khalifa?

• Dubai, 2717 ft, 160+ stories.

• Tallest building in the world.

• Symbol of modern engineering, mixed-use development.

What is the Jeddah Tower project?

• Planned to surpass Burj Khalifa (3281 ft, 167 stories).

• Construction began 2013; halted due to political/government purge.

Describe the Eiffel Tower’s construction details.

• Gustave Eiffel, Paris, 1887–1889.

• 984 ft (300 m), wrought iron.

• 3 floors: observatory, decorative, middle.

• Hydraulic elevators; failed in winter.

What criticisms did the Eiffel Tower face?

• Called “giant ink stain.”

• Obstructed traditional skyline; controversial modernism.

• Opposed by artists like Charles Garnier.

Who were key engineers behind the US Capitol Dome?

• Montgomery Meigs and August Schoenborn.

• Thomas Ustick Walter, architect.

• Structural design: cast iron trusses and cantilevered triangles.

What are the main layers of the US Capitol Dome?

• Outer: wooden shell.

• Middle: cast iron truss.

• Inner: plaster with oculus.

What is the Haughwout Building known for?

• First public elevator (steam-powered).

• Cast iron facade by Daniel Badger.

• 5-story dry goods store, 1856–1857.

Explain “skeleton frame construction.”

• Steel or iron frame supports entire building.

• Walls are non-load-bearing; allows taller buildings.

• Enabled skyscraper boom in late 19th century.

What is the significance of the Singer Building?

• NYC, 1906–1908, 612 ft.

• Tallest building 1908–1909.

• Headquarters for Singer sewing machines.

• Demolished in 1968.

: Discuss Chicago Masonic Temple.

• 1890–1892, Burham & Root.

• First “world’s tallest building” (302 ft, 21 stories).

• Published in Scientific American.

How did skyscraper floor desirability change after elevators?

• Before: wealthy on ground floors.

• After: top floors became most prestigious (sunlight, clean air, privacy).

Describe the French Beaux-Arts/Second Empire style.

• Symmetry, ornamentation, grandeur.

• Example: Paris Opera House, 1862–1875, Charles Garnier.

Describe Neo-Classicism examples in the US.

• Second Bank of the US, Philadelphia (1818–1824), William Strickland.

• Greek revival influences.

What is eclecticism in architecture?

• Mixing multiple historical styles in one building.

• Example: The Architect’s Dream (1840) by Thomas Cole.

Who was Sigfried Giedion, and what did he write?

• Historian/critic.

• Space, Time, and Architecture.

• Analyzed forces shaping 20th-century architectural progress.

Name key cast iron buildings.

• Laing Stores (1849)

• Haughwout Store (1856–1857)

• Santa Catalina Warehouse, Havana (1858–1860)

Explain NYC’s “Castello Plan.”

• 17th-century Italian city plan adopted in Manhattan.

• Influenced grid layout; combined with topography for early development.

Why did early NYC residents live in suburbs vs cities?

• Desire for private space, distance from commerce/industry.

• Europe favored dense city living; NYC gradually followed urban high-rise model.

Name major New York boroughs.

• Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, Bronx, Staten Island.

Why was Broad Street significant?

• NYC Stock Exchange location; formerly a canal.

What were the main features of Laing Stores?

• Cast iron facade, Greek Revival style, prefabricated walls, infill windows.

• Constructed 1849, demolished 1971.

Describe the Haughwout Store elevator.

• Steam-powered, public, added later; some had benches.

• First commercial example in the US.

What is the Crystal Palace, and why was it innovative?

• London, 1850–1851, Joseph Paxton.

• Prefabricated iron and glass construction for world’s fair.

• On time, under budget; inspired later US designs.

Name major 19th-century architectural styles.

Neo-classicism/Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, Beaux-Arts/Second Empire, Iron & Glass architecture.

What is the significance of the Zeitgeist in architecture?

Explains stylistic trends, societal influences, and shared principles of a period.

hat are the key ways the CTBUH measures skyscraper height?

1. Height to architectural top (includes spires, excludes antennas).

2. Highest occupied floor (accessible interior).

3. Height to tip (includes antennas).

• Previously: height to roof (now rarely used).

Describe the controversy with Trump International Hotel & Tower in Chicago.

• 2005–2008, SOM, 98 stories (+2 below grade).

• Developers counted two underground floors to inflate story count.

• CTBUH redefined skyscraper base: from lowest open-air pedestrian entrance.

• Trump signage added in 2014; city objected.

How did Elisha Otis revolutionize elevator safety?

• 1854: first safety elevator demo at NYC Crystal Palace.

• Spring-based brake prevents free-fall.

• Steam-powered; patent filed 1861.

What were hydraulic elevators?

• Late 1800s, piston/plunger type, powered by water.

• Could freeze in winter, temporarily inoperable.

Describe early electric elevators.

• 1890s, Morse-Williams.

• Partially open; required operator to control.

• Led to automatic elevators in early 1900s due to operator strikes.

How were skyscraper heights culturally judged?

• Historic tall towers as symbols: Tower of Babel, Great Mosque (Samarra), Amiens Cathedral, St. Peter’s, Eiffel Tower.

• Height linked to prestige, engineering prowess, and social visibility.

Describe the social history tied to elevators (Tulsa Race Massacre anecdote).

• Elevator incidents highlighted segregation and social tensions.

• Example: elevator accident caused by restrictions on restroom use for Black workers.

How did cast iron perform in fires?

Extremely flammable; buildings could literally melt in intense fires (e.g., Chicago fire).

How did Giedion interpret architectural progress?

In Space, Time, and Architecture, Giedion argued that modern architecture evolved from technological innovations and cultural forces (iron/steel, elevators, skeleton frame, urban density).

Why are insurance companies historically linked to skyscrapers?

They had capital to invest in innovative, fireproof construction (Equitable Building, Home Insurance Building).

First building designed with an elevator in mind?

Equitable Building, NYC (1868–70), steam-powered elevators, 2nd Empire style, load-bearing masonry.

What are machicolations and cusps?

Machicolations: medieval towers projecting openings for defense.
Cusps: decorative points in Gothic arches.
Useful when studying stylistic references in early skyscrapers (Tribune Building).

What was the New York Produce Exchange, and why was it significant?

• Built: 1881–1884, Manhattan, NYC

• Architect: George B. Post

• Function: Commodity exchange for produce (grain, foodstuffs)

• Height: ~13 stories; large trading hall was main feature

• Structure: Steel frame with masonry exterior (early skeleton frame influence)

• Features:

  • Massive barrel-vaulted trading hall

  • Skylights for natural light

  • Eclectic/Beaux-Arts ornamentation

• Significance:

  • Early use of steel and iron to create large open interior spaces

  • Influenced later steel-frame skyscrapers

  • Demolished 1957