AP Psych

Attribution Theory

A theory that explains how people interpret the causes of behavior, either from internal (personal) or external (situational) factors.

Dispositional Attributions

Attributing behavior to internal traits, personality, or abilities rather than external influences.

Situational Attributions

Attributing behavior to external circumstances, such as the environment, social pressure, or luck.

Explanatory Style

A person’s habitual way of explaining life events, usually categorized as optimistic or pessimistic.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s own actions to situational factors while attributing others’ actions to personality traits.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate situational influences when explaining others’ behaviors.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute personal successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that one’s efforts and decisions directly influence outcomes in life.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon in which repeated exposure to a stimulus increases one’s preference for it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences one’s behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

External Locus of Control

The belief that outside forces control one’s life outcomes.

Social Comparison

The process of evaluating oneself by comparing to others, impacting self-esteem and motivation.

Relative Deprivation

The perception of being worse off than others, leading to feelings of resentment or dissatisfaction.

Mirror-Image Perceptions

The tendency for opposing groups to view each other negatively while seeing themselves as justified.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group that ignores individual differences.

Cognitive Load

The mental effort required to process information, affecting decision-making and problem-solving.

Prejudice

An unjustified and usually negative attitude toward a group based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

Negative behavior directed toward individuals based on group membership.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious biases that influence behavior without awareness.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to hold onto initial beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Outgroup

A group that an individual does not identify with.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The perception that members of an outgroup are more similar than those in one’s ingroup.

Ingroup

A group that an individual identifies with and feels belonging to.

In-Group Bias

The tendency to prefer and show favoritism toward one’s own group.

Ethnocentrism

The belief in the superiority of one’s own culture and judging others by that standard.

Scapegoat Theory

The idea that prejudice arises from blaming others, often a minority group, for societal problems.

Other-Race Effect

The tendency to recognize faces of one’s own race more accurately than those of other races.

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors.

Social Norms

Accepted rules of behavior within a society that guide interactions.

Social Influence Theory

The study of how people's thoughts and behaviors are shaped by the presence of others.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to group norms to gain approval or avoid rejection.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because one believes the group has accurate information.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Persuasion through superficial cues, not through logical reasoning.

Halo Effect

The tendency for an impression in one area to influence judgments in other areas.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

The tendency for people to comply with larger requests after first agreeing to a small one.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A persuasion strategy where a large request is made first, followed by a smaller request.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with group standards.

Persuasion

The process of influencing attitudes or behaviors through communication.

Central Route Persuasion

Persuasion that relies on logical arguments and evidence.

Obedience

Following orders or commands from an authority figure.

Multiculturalism

Recognition and appreciation of diverse cultures within society.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussions to lead to more extreme positions.

Groupthink

The tendency for a group to prioritize agreement over critical thinking.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible to take action in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

Reduced individual effort when working in a group compared to alone.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others.

Social Trap

A situation where individuals act in self-interest but create long-term harm for the group.

Superordinate Goals

Goals requiring cooperation between groups for a shared benefit.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, helpful social actions.

Altruism

Unselfish concern for others' well-being.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people will help those in need.

The Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in emergencies when others are present.

Individualism

A cultural value emphasizing personal independence and self-reliance.

Collectivism

A cultural value prioritizing group harmony and interdependence.

Personality

An individual's characteristic thinking, feeling, and behaving pattern, influenced by genetics and the environment.

Psychodynamic Theory

A perspective on personality emphasizing unconscious processes and childhood experiences.

Id

The unconscious part of personality seeking pleasure and immediate gratification.

Ego

The rational part of personality mediating between the id, superego, and reality.

Superego

The internalized moral standards guiding behavior.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

Denial

Refusing to acknowledge reality.

Displacement

Shifting impulses toward a more acceptable target.

Projection

Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to others.

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors with logical but false explanations.

Reaction Formation

Acting opposite to one’s true feelings.

Regression

Reverting to an earlier developmental stage.

Repression

Pushing anxiety-inducing thoughts into the unconscious.

Sublimation

Redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors.

Projective Tests

Personality assessments using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious motives.

Preconscious

Thoughts and memories accessible but not currently in awareness.

Unconscious

The part of the mind containing thoughts influencing behavior without awareness.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

The human drive to fulfill potential, key in humanistic psychology.

Social-Cognitive Theory

The view that personality is shaped by interactions between thoughts, behavior, and environment.

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura’s concept that personality is influenced by traits, behavior, and environment.

Self-Concept

A person's understanding of themselves, including traits, values, and beliefs.

Traits

Stable patterns of behavior that describe personality.

The Big Five Theory

A model of personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Openness to Experience

Creativity, curiosity, and willingness to try new things.

Conscientiousness

Organization, responsibility, and dependability.

Extraversion

Sociability, energy, and assertiveness.

Agreeableness

Kindness, empathy, and cooperativeness.

Neuroticism

Tendency toward anxiety, depression, and emotional instability.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-Esteem

One's overall sense of self-worth.

Drive-Reduction Theory

The notion that motivation arises from biological needs creating internal drives.

Arousal Theory

The theory that people seek an optimal level of arousal.

Optimal Level of Arousal

The ideal amount of stimulation for peak performance.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance improves with arousal to a point but declines if too high.

Self-Determination Theory

Humans are motivated by needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior for its own sake rather than for external rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in behavior to gain external rewards or avoid punishment.

Instincts

Innate, biologically determined behavior patterns.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

Motivation influenced by conflicting desires.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Choosing between two desirable options.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

A choice with both positive and negative aspects.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Choosing between two undesirable options.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

The idea that some seek high levels of stimulation and risk.