AP Psych

Attribution (Attribution Theory) – A theory explaining how people interpret the causes of behavior, either as stemming from internal (personal) or external (situational) factors.

Dispositional Attributions – Attributing behavior to internal traits, personality, or abilities rather than external influences.

Situational Attributions – Attributing behavior to external circumstances, such as the environment, social pressure, or luck.

Explanatory Style – A person’s habitual way of explaining life events, typically categorized as optimistic (expecting positive outcomes) or pessimistic (expecting negative ones).

Actor-Observer Bias – The tendency to attribute one’s own actions to situational factors while attributing others’ actions to their personality traits.

Fundamental Attribution Error – The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate situational influences when explaining others’ behaviors.

Self-Serving Bias – The tendency to attribute personal successes to internal factors (e.g., skill) and failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck).

Internal Locus of Control – The belief that one’s own efforts and decisions directly influence outcomes in life.

Mere Exposure Effect – The phenomenon in which repeated exposure to a stimulus increases one’s preference or liking for it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – A belief or expectation that influences one’s behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

External Locus of Control – The belief that outside forces, such as fate, luck, or powerful others, control one’s life outcomes.

Social Comparison – The process of evaluating oneself by comparing to others, which can impact self-esteem and motivation.

Relative Deprivation – The perception that one is worse off than others, often leading to feelings of resentment or dissatisfaction.

Mirror-Image Perceptions – The tendency for opposing groups or individuals to view each other in a negative, biased way while seeing themselves as moral and justified.

Stereotype – A generalized belief or assumption about a group of people that may not account for individual differences.

Cognitive Load – The amount of mental effort required to process information, which can affect decision-making and problem-solving.

Prejudice – An unjustified and usually negative attitude toward a group based on stereotypes rather than individual characteristics.

Discrimination – Negative or unfair behavior directed toward individuals based on group membership.

Implicit Attitudes – Unconscious biases or associations that influence behavior without one’s awareness.

Just-World Phenomenon – The belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve, often leading to victim-blaming.

Belief Perseverance – The tendency to cling to initial beliefs even after receiving contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias – The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Outgroup – A group that an individual does not identify with or belong to.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias – The perception that members of an outgroup are more similar to each other than members of one’s ingroup.

Ingroup – A group an individual identifies with and feels a sense of belonging to.

In-Group Bias – The tendency to favor and show preferential treatment toward members of one’s own group.

Ethnocentrism – The belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group and the tendency to judge other cultures by one’s own standards.

Scapegoat Theory – The idea that prejudice arises as a way to blame others, often a minority group, for societal problems.

Other-Race Effect – The tendency to recognize faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races.

Cognitive Dissonance – The psychological discomfort that arises when a person holds conflicting beliefs or behaves in ways that contradict their values.

Social Norms – The accepted rules of behavior within a society or group that guide social interactions.

Social Influence Theory – The study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the presence of others.

Normative Social Influence – Conforming to group norms to gain approval or avoid rejection.

Informational Social Influence – Conforming because one believes the group has accurate information.

Peripheral Route Persuasion – Persuasion that occurs through superficial cues, such as attractiveness or emotional appeal, rather than logic.

Halo Effect – The tendency to let a positive impression in one area influence judgments in other areas.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique – The tendency for people to comply with a larger request after first agreeing to a small one.

Door-in-the-Face Technique – A persuasion strategy where a large request is made first, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

Conformity – Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to align with group standards.

Persuasion – The process of influencing attitudes or behaviors through communication.

Central Route Persuasion – Persuasion that relies on logical arguments and evidence.

Obedience – Following orders or commands from an authority figure.

Multiculturalism – Recognition and appreciation of diverse cultures within a society.

Group Polarization – The tendency for group discussions to lead to more extreme positions.

Groupthink – The tendency for a group to prioritize agreement and harmony over critical thinking.

Diffusion of Responsibility – The tendency for people to feel less responsible for taking action in the presence of others.

Social Loafing – Reduced individual effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Deindividuation – The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations.

Social Facilitation – Improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others.

Social Trap – A situation where individuals act in self-interest but create long-term harm for the group.

Superordinate Goals – Goals that require cooperation between groups to achieve a shared benefit.

Prosocial Behavior – Positive, helpful, and cooperative social actions.

Altruism – Unselfish concern for the well-being of others.

Social Responsibility Norm – The expectation that people will help those in need.

The Bystander Effect – The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Individualism – A cultural value emphasizing personal independence and self-reliance.

Collectivism – A cultural value prioritizing group harmony and interdependence.

Personality – An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that remains relatively stable over time and across situations. It is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Psychodynamic Theory – A perspective on personality that emphasizes unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping behavior.

Id – The unconscious, instinctual part of personality that seeks pleasure and immediate gratification.

Ego – The rational, conscious part of personality that mediates between the id, superego, and reality.

Superego – The internalized moral standards of society that guide behavior and decision-making.

Defense Mechanisms – Unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

• Denial – Refusing to acknowledge reality.

• Displacement – Shifting aggressive or sexual impulses toward a more acceptable target.

• Projection – Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to others.

• Rationalization – Justifying behaviors with logical but false explanations.

• Reaction Formation – Acting opposite to one’s true feelings.

• Regression – Reverting to an earlier developmental stage.

• Repression – Pushing anxiety-inducing thoughts into the unconscious.

• Sublimation – Redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors.

Projective Tests – Personality assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious motives.

Preconscious – Thoughts and memories that are not currently in awareness but can be easily accessed.

Unconscious – The part of the mind containing thoughts, desires, and memories that influence behavior without conscious awareness.

Self-Actualizing Tendency – The human drive to fulfill potential and become the best version of oneself, a key concept in humanistic psychology.

Social-Cognitive Theory – The view that personality is shaped by interactions between thoughts, behavior, and environment.

Reciprocal Determinism – Bandura’s concept that personality is influenced by the interaction between personal traits, behavior, and environmental factors.

Self-Concept – A person’s understanding of themselves, including their traits, values, and beliefs.

Traits – Stable and enduring patterns of behavior that describe personality.

The Big Five Theory (Big Five Factors) – A widely accepted model of personality traits:

• Openness to Experience – Creativity, curiosity, and willingness to try new things.

• Conscientiousness – Organization, responsibility, and dependability.

• Extraversion – Sociability, energy, and assertiveness.

• Agreeableness – Kindness, empathy, and cooperativeness.

• Neuroticism (Emotional Stability) – Tendency toward anxiety, depression, and emotional instability.

Self-Efficacy – A person’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-Esteem – One’s overall sense of self-worth.

Drive-Reduction Theory – The idea that motivation arises from a biological need that creates an internal drive to reduce discomfort.

Arousal Theory – The theory that people seek an optimal level of arousal, not just to reduce drives.

Optimal Level of Arousal – The ideal amount of stimulation for peak performance, varying by task and individual.

Yerkes-Dodson Law – The principle that performance improves with arousal up to a certain point but declines if arousal becomes too high.

Self-Determination Theory – The idea that humans are motivated by a need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Intrinsic Motivation – Engaging in a behavior for its own sake, rather than for external rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation – Engaging in a behavior to gain external rewards or avoid punishment.

Instincts – Innate, biologically determined patterns of behavior.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory – The idea that motivation is influenced by conflicting desires:

• Approach-Approach Conflict – Choosing between two desirable options.

• Approach-Avoidance Conflict – A choice that has both positive and negative aspects.

• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – Choosing between two undesirable options.

Sensation-Seeking Theory – The idea that some individuals seek out high levels of stimulation and risk-taking experiences.

Glucose – A sugar in the blood that provides energy; its levels influence hunger.

Hypothalamus – A brain structure involved in regulating hunger, thirst, and other drives.

Pituitary Gland – The "master gland" that controls hormone release.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis – The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions.

Universal Emotions – The six basic emotions recognized across cultures: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

Broaden-and-Build Theory – The idea that positive emotions broaden cognitive and social resources.

Display Rules – Cultural norms that regulate how and when emotions are expressed.