AP COMP SCIENCE - FALL FINAL 2025

TEST : Dec 12, 2025

Analog to digital conversion

Can be turned into digital data by sampling, measuring values at regular intervals to store them in bits.

Digital data

Computers store all data digitally using bits.

Bit

A binary digit: 0 or 1.

Byte

A group of 8 bits.

Abstraction

Reduces complexity by focusing on main ideas and hiding unnecessary detail.

Bit grouping

These can be grouped to represent abstractions like numbers, characters, or colors.

Context-dependent bits

The same bits can represent different types of data depending on context.

Analog data

Data that changes smoothly over time (e.g., sound, color, motion).

Digital approximation

Digitally approximating analog data is an example of abstraction.

Integer limits

Integers use a fixed number of bits, limiting range and causing overflow errors.

Real number limits

Real numbers use fixed bits, causing approximation and round-off errors.

Binary/decimal conversion

Convert between binary and decimal; compare binary numbers.

Binary place value

A bit’s value depends on its position.

Base 2 place value

Binary place value equals 2 raised to the position number.

Data compression

Reduces the number of bits needed to store or transmit data.

Lossless compression

Reduces size while allowing perfect reconstruction.

Lossy compression

Reduces size more but only reconstructs an approximation.

Lossy vs lossless

Lossy usually shrinks data more than lossless.

Lossless use case

Chosen when quality and accuracy matter most.

Lossy use case

Chosen when minimizing size or transmission time matters most.

Intellectual property

Digital creations belong to the creator.

Plagiarism

Using others’ work without permission and claiming it as your own.

Legal content use

Creative Commons, open source, and open access allow lawful use.

Citation

Always cite material created by others.

Path (networking)

A sequence of directly connected devices between sender and receiver.

Internet

A network of networks using open, standard protocols.

Internet access

Requires connecting a device to part of the Internet.

Protocol

An agreed-upon set of rules for communication.

Open protocols

Allow easy connection of new devices.

Dynamic routing

Paths on the Internet change as needed.

Scalability

A system’s ability to grow or handle more demand.

Internet scalability

The Internet was designed to be scalable.

Common protocols

IP, TCP, and UDP.

Datastream

Data traveling across the Internet in chunks.

Packets

Chunks of data with routing metadata.

Packet arrival

May arrive in order, out of order, or not at all.

World Wide Web

A system of linked pages, programs, and files.

HTTP

The protocol used by the Web.

Web vs Internet

The Web uses the Internet.

Fault tolerance

The Internet keeps working even when parts fail.

Redundancy

Extra components that protect against failure.

Multiple paths

Networks often have more than one route between devices.

Automatic rerouting

Data is rerouted if a path fails.

Fault tolerant system

Works even when elements fail.

Redundancy tradeoff

Requires more resources but increases reliability.

Routing redundancy

Increases reliability and supports scaling.

Internet access inequality

Varies by socioeconomic, geographic, and demographic factors.

Digital divide

Unequal access to devices and the Internet.

Digital divide impact

Affects individuals and groups.

Digital divide issues

Raises equity, access, and influence concerns.

Digital divide influences

Shaped by individuals, organizations, and governments.

Event driven programming

Runs code when events occur.

Program requirements

Describe what a program must do, including interactions.

Program specification

Defines program requirements.

Comments

Notes for humans that do not affect execution.

Debugging

Identify and fix errors in a program.

Assignment operator

Stores or changes a variable’s value.

Variable behavior

A variable holds its most recently assigned value.

String

An ordered sequence of characters.

Expression

A value, variable, operator, or procedure call.

Expression evaluation

Produces a single value.

Order of operations

Rules that determine evaluation order.

Arithmetic operators

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus.

Boolean logic

Uses logical operators to compare conditions.

Logical operators

NOT, AND, OR.

AND operator

True only if both conditions are true.

OR operator

True if at least one condition is true.

Conditional statements

Run different code depending on a Boolean expression.

Nested conditionals

Conditionals inside other conditionals.

Else if

A type of nested conditional.

Procedure call

Runs a named set of instructions.

Procedure

A named group of instructions with optional parameters/returns.

Procedural abstraction

Reuses code and reduces complexity.

Logic error

A mistake causing incorrect program behavior.

Testing correctness

Identify inputs and expected outputs.

Relational operators

Compare values (=, ≠, >, <, ≥, ≤).

Data insights

Data can show patterns, trends, or information.

Metadata

Data about data.

Data challenges

Issues like size, complexity, and quality.

Data bias

Bias can come from how or where data is collected; more data doesn’t fix it.

Data extraction

Programs can pull information from data.

Data cleaning

Programs can filter and clean data for insights.

Data transformation

Turning or translating data can produce knowledge.

Innovation bias

Computing innovations can contain bias.

Collaborative problem solving

People work together at scale to solve problems.