PHIL Exam 2

What is Cartesian Dualism?

The philosophical concept that the mind and body are two distinct substances: the mind is immaterial and thinking, while the body is material and extended in space.

According to Cartesian Dualism, what is the nature of the mind?

Immaterial, non-extended, and capable of thought.

According to Cartesian Dualism, what is the nature of the body?

Material, extended in space, and purely mechanical.

What is the "Mind-body interaction" problem?

The challenge of explaining how an immaterial mind and a material body can influence and interact with each other.

Who proposed the Pineal Gland Hypothesis?

Rene Descartes.

What did Descartes suggest was the site of mind-body interaction?

The pineal gland.

What role did "Divine Intervention" play in Descartes' proposed solution to mind-body interaction?

Descartes suggested God maintains harmony, allowing the mind to exert physical influence on the body.

What is "Substance Dualism"?

The view that there are two fundamentally different kinds of substances in existence: mental (non-physical) and physical.

What is "Property Dualism"?

The view that there is only one kind of substance (physical), but that there are two distinct kinds of properties associated with it: physical properties and non-physical (mental) properties.

What is the "Problem of Interaction" for dualism?

The difficulty in explaining how a non-physical mind and a physical body can causally affect each other.

What does the principle of "Causal Closure of the Physical" state?

Every physical event has a sufficient physical cause, implying that a non-physical mind cannot cause physical events without violating physical laws.

What is "Epiphenomenalism"?

The view that mental events are byproducts of physical processes, having no causal influence on physical events themselves. Mental events are like smoke from a train, not driving the train.

According to Epiphenomenalism, can mental events cause physical events?

No; mental events are merely effects or byproducts, without causal power over physical events.

What is "Identity Theory"?

The theory that mental states are identical to specific physical states of the brain.

What does Identity Theory imply about knowing the mind through brain science?

Complete knowledge of the brain would provide complete knowledge of the mind.

What is "The Conscious Experience Argument" (against Identity Theory)?

The argument that subjective conscious experiences (qualia) cannot be fully explained or understood solely by brain activities, suggesting mental states are more than just physical states.

What is "Qualia"?

The subjective, qualitative properties of experiences, such as the redness of red or the pain of a headache, which are central to the Conscious Experience Argument.

What is "Functionalism" in the philosophy of mind?

The theory that mental states are defined by their causal roles and functional relationships (inputs, outputs, and relations to other mental states), rather than their specific physical realization.

What is "Multiple Realizability"?

The concept, often used to support Functionalism, that a given mental state (e.g., pain) can be realized or implemented by different physical systems or brain types.

What is "Eliminative Materialism"?

The radical view that our common-sense "folk psychology" concepts like beliefs, desires, and intentions are fundamentally flawed and should be eliminated as our understanding of the brain advances.

What is "Folk Psychology"?

The everyday, intuitive understanding people have of mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions) and how they explain human behavior.

What is "Hard Determinism"?

The view that all events, including human actions, are causally determined by prior events and natural laws, and therefore free will does not exist.

Does Hard Determinism allow for free will?

No, it asserts that free will is an illusion because all choices are predetermined.

What is "Causal Determinism"?

The philosophical position that every event is necessitated by preceding events and conditions combined with the laws of nature.

What is "Causal Indeterminism"?

The theory that some events are not strictly determined by prior causes, implying an element of genuine randomness or chance in the universe.

What is "Indeterminism" generally?

The broader idea that not all events are rigidly determined by prior causes and that chance or uncaused events play a role in outcomes.

What is "Libertarianism" (regarding free will)?

The view that agents have genuine free will, and that this free will is incompatible with causal determinism.

What is "Compatibilism"?

The philosophical position that free will and causal determinism are mutually compatible and can both exist.

What is "Incompatibilism"?

The philosophical position that free will and causal determinism are mutually exclusive; one cannot have both. (Hard Determinism and Libertarianism are both forms of Incompatibilism).

What is the "Consequence Argument" for Incompatibilism?

The argument that if determinism is true, our actions are the inevitable consequence of remote events and natural laws, over which we have no control, thus we are not free.

What are "Alternative Possibilities" in the free will debate?

The idea that for an action to be free, the agent must have had the genuine ability to choose and do otherwise than they actually did.

How does the debate about free will relate to "Moral Responsibility"?

A central question is whether individuals can be held morally responsible for their actions if those actions are fully determined and they lack free will.

What is the "Readiness Potential"?

A measurable electrical brain activity that precedes conscious awareness of the decision to perform a voluntary movement, suggesting brain preparation before conscious intent.

Who conducted influential experiments related to the "Readiness Potential" and free will?

Benjamin Libet.

What is the philosophical implication of the "Readiness Potential" for free will?

It raises questions about the timing and origin of conscious free choices, suggesting that some brain activity leading to action is unconscious.

What is a "Natural Kind"?

A category or group in nature that is thought to have objective, non-arbitrary boundaries and shared essential properties, independent of human classification.

Give an example of something often considered a "Natural Kind".

Elements (e.g., gold), chemical compounds (e.g., water), or fundamental particles (e.g., electrons).

What is the "Biological Species Concept (BSC)"?

A definition of species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

What is the primary criterion for defining a species under the BSC?

The ability to interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring.

What is a common limitation of the Biological Species Concept?

It cannot apply to asexual organisms, extinct species, or cases where hybridization occurs frequently.

What is the "Typological Species Concept"?

An older concept defining species based on a fixed, ideal "type" or specimen, with variation around this type considered imperfect. Largely replaced by evolutionary concepts.

What is the "Phylogenetic Species Concept"?

A species defined as the smallest diagnosable cluster of individual organisms that shares a common ancestor and forms a monophyletic group.

What is the "Social Construction of Race"?

The understanding that race is a concept created and defined by societal norms, historical contexts, and power structures, rather than by inherent biological differences.

What does the "Social Construction of Race" imply about the biological basis of race?

It argues that traditional racial categories do not correspond to distinct biological groups or subspecies with clear genetic boundaries.

What is "Phenotype"?

The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with environmental factors.

What is "Genotype"?

The genetic makeup or constitution of an individual organism.

What is "Clinal Variation"?

The gradual change in a genetic characteristic or phenotype across continuous geographic space, without sharp boundaries. This challenges the idea of discrete racial groups.

What is "Essentialism" in philosophy?

The view that objects or concepts have a set of necessary attributes that define their identity and function.

What is "Nominalism"?

The philosophical view that abstract concepts, universals, or general terms are merely names or labels, and do not correspond to any objective reality existing independently of thought.

Why are "Natural Kinds" important in philosophy of science?

They are believed to be the categories that science should aim to discover, as they reflect the true structure of the world and support inductive generalizations.