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Biological Perspective

Focuses on neurotransmitters and genetics.

Behavioral Perspective

Emphasizes conditioning and reinforcement.

Cognitive Perspective

Involves thoughts and schemas.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Centers on the unconscious and childhood conflicts.

Humanistic Perspective

Highlights self-actualization and empathy.

Sociocultural Perspective

Examines norms and environment.

Evolutionary Perspective

Looks at adaptation and survival.

Biopsychosocial Model

Explains causes as interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Diathesis-Stress Model

Describes the onset of disorder as a combination of predisposition and environmental trigger.

Eclectic Approach

Tailors treatment by drawing from multiple theories and techniques.

The 3 D's of Disorder

Deviance, Distress, Dysfunction, and sometimes Danger.

Diagnosis Requirements

Includes clinical interview, meeting DSM or ICD criteria, and structured assessments.

DSM

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders by the American Psychiatric Association.

ICD

The International Classification of Diseases by the World Health Organization.

Positives of Diagnosing

Guides treatment, provides insurance coverage, and ensures research consistency.

Negatives of Diagnosing

Can lead to stigma, labeling, and potential for overdiagnosis.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Criteria

Requires ≥5 symptoms including depressed mood and anhedonia for ≥2 weeks.

Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD)

Characterized by depressed mood most days for ≥2 years with additional symptoms.

Biological Causes of Depression

Includes neurotransmitter imbalance and genetic vulnerability.

Learned Helplessness

A behavioral cause of depression characterized by a lack of perceived control.

Cognitive Triad

Involves negative views of self, world, and future.

Sociocultural Explanation of Depression

Factors include low social support and cultural stressors.

Bipolar Disorder Common Features

Includes mood swings between depressive and manic/hypomanic states.

Type I Bipolar Disorder

Characterized by ≥1 full manic episode.

Type II Bipolar Disorder

Involves ≥1 hypomanic and ≥1 major depressive episode.

Schizophrenia Core Symptoms

Includes delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, and negative symptoms.

Hallucinations

False sensory perceptions, such as hearing voices.

Delusions

Fixed false beliefs, such as believing one is being followed.

Persecutory delusions

Beliefs that one is being targeted or harassed, e.g., FBI spying.

Grandiose delusions

Beliefs that one is famous or has exceptional abilities.

Word Salad

An incoherent jumble of words.

Catatonia

A state of unresponsiveness or extreme agitation.

Excited Catatonia

Excessive purposeless movement.

Stupor Catatonia

Immobility and mutism.

Positive Symptoms

Symptoms that add to the person's experience, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganization.

Negative Symptoms

Symptoms that reflect deficits in functioning, such as flat affect, alogia, and avolition.

Acute Symptoms

Symptoms with rapid onset, mostly positive.

Chronic Symptoms

Symptoms with slow onset, prominent negative.

Dopamine hypothesis

A theory suggesting that dopamine dysregulation is involved in certain mental disorders.

Prenatal infection / obstetric complications

Factors that may increase the risk of developing mental disorders.

Genetic risk

The inherited likelihood of developing a mental disorder.

Diathesis-stress model

A model suggesting that a predisposition to a disorder can be triggered by stress.

Common Features of Anxiety Disorders

Excessive fear/anxiety and avoidance.

Phobic Disorder

Persistent fear of specific objects or situations.

Acrophobia

Fear of heights.

Claustrophobia

Fear of enclosed spaces.

Agoraphobia

Fear of situations where escape may be difficult, such as crowds or public transport.

Panic Disorder

Characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks, which are abrupt surges of intense fear.

Ataque de Nervios

A Latino cultural syndrome characterized by screaming, trembling, and aggression.

Social Anxiety Disorder

Fear of social scrutiny and embarrassment, which may co-occur with agoraphobia.

Taijin Kyofusho

A Japanese variant of social anxiety characterized by fear of offending others.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Excessive worry lasting 6 months or more, accompanied by at least 3 symptoms such as restlessness, fatigue, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance.

Dissociative Amnesia

Inability to recall personal information, often localized or selective.

Fugue

A state involving travel and amnesia for identity or past.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Presence of two or more distinct identities with memory gaps.

ADHD Symptoms

Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Autism Symptoms

Deficits in social communication and restricted or repetitive behaviors.

Obsessions

Unwanted intrusive thoughts.

Compulsions

Repetitive behaviors performed to reduce anxiety.

Hoarding

Difficulty discarding possessions, leading to clutter.

Biological Causes of OCD

Serotonin dysregulation and abnormalities in the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuit.

Cognitive & Behavioral Causes of OCD

Involves thought-action fusion and negative reinforcement of compulsions.

Common Features of Feeding & Eating Disorders

Persistent disturbance in eating behavior.

Anorexia Nervosa

Characterized by low body weight, fear of gaining weight, and body-image disturbance.

Bulimia Nervosa

Recurrent binge eating + compensatory behavior (e.g., purging), self‑evaluation based on weight

Biological Explanations

Genetic factors, serotonin dysfunction, hypothalamic dysregulation

Sociocultural Explanations

Cultural beauty ideals, media influence

Cognitive & Behavioral

Perfectionism, reinforcement of dieting behaviors

PTSD Symptoms

Intrusion (flashbacks), avoidance, negative cognitions, arousal/reactivity (≥1 month)

Causes of PTSD

Exposure to trauma, severity, proximity, lack of support

Common Features of Personality Disorders

Enduring patterns of inner experience & behavior, inflexible, cause distress/impairment

Cluster A Personality Disorders

Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal

Cluster B Personality Disorders

Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic

Cluster C Personality Disorders

Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive PD

Paranoid Personality Disorder Symptoms

Distrust, suspicion

Schizoid Personality Disorder Symptoms

Detachment, limited emotion

Schizotypal Personality Disorder Symptoms

Odd beliefs, social anxiety

Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms

Instability in relationships, self‑image, impulsivity

Histrionic Personality Disorder Symptoms

Excessive attention‑seeking

Narcissistic Personality Disorder Symptoms

Grandiosity, need for admiration

Antisocial Personality Disorder Symptoms

Disregard for others' rights

Avoidant Personality Disorder Symptoms

Social inhibition, hypersensitivity

Dependent Personality Disorder Symptoms

Submissive, need to be taken care of

OCPD Symptoms

Preoccupation with order, perfectionism

Biological & Sociocultural Factors

Genetic predispositions; childhood trauma, parenting styles

Why Therapy?

Modify maladaptive thoughts/behaviors; Evidence‑Based Treatment: supported by empirical research

Four Ethical Principles in Therapy

1. Autonomy: respect client's choices 2. Beneficence: promote well‑being 3. Nonmaleficence: do no harm 4. Justice: fairness in access

Deinstitutionalization

Shift from asylums to community care (1960s-70s) to improve rights & integration

Decentralized Approach

Community mental health centers, outpatient services

Psychodynamic Therapy Techniques

Free association: uncensored speaking; Dream interpretation: uncover unconscious conflicts

Biological Treatments

Drug Categories: Antipsychotics (psychosis), Antidepressants (depression), Mood stabilizers (bipolar), Anxiolytics (anxiety)

Tardive Dyskinesia

Involuntary movements from long‑term antipsychotic use

Neurotransmitter Targets

e.g., SSRIs → serotonin, antipsychotics → dopamine

Psychosurgery

e.g., lobotomy (historical, severe cases)

ECT

Induced seizures for severe depression; biological treatment of last resort

TMS

Magnetic stimulation for depression; less invasive alternative

Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive triad: negative views of self, world, future; Cognitive restructuring: challenge & replace distorted thoughts

Behavioral Therapy Techniques

Based on classical/operant conditioning; Techniques: Systematic desensitization (gradual exposure), Aversion therapy (pair behavior with unpleasant stimulus), Token economy (reinforcement), Biofeedback (control physiological processes)

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): originally for borderline PD; now emotion regulation; Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT): challenge irrational beliefs

Humanistic Therapy

Person‑centered (Rogers): unconditional positive regard, empathy, genuineness; Active listening: reflect feelings and content