Theories of Development: Erikson to Vygotsky

psychosocial theory of development

Development theory by Erik Erikson proposing lifelong development influenced by relationships and society's expectations, with individuals overcoming specific psychosocial issues in eight distinct periods.

Erikson's First stage (0-1)

trust vs mistrust - infants develop trust through responsive caregivers, leading to a view of the world as safe, while mistrust arises from unmet needs.

Erikson's Second stage (1-3)

autonomy vs shame and doubt - toddlers seek independence, facing shame if desires conflict with caregiver demands.

Erikson's Third stage (3-6)

initiative vs guilt - children assert control and seek new activities, with encouragement fostering self-confidence and guilt arising from labeling activities as pointless.

Erikson's Fourth stage (6-11)

industry vs inferiority - focusing on completing activities and skill-building, where competence is encouraged by caregivers to avoid feelings of inadequacy.

Erikson's Fifth stage (12-18)

identity vs role confusion - involving adolescents confirming their identity through exploration, with peer groups and caregivers playing crucial roles.

Erikson's Sixth stage (19-39)

intimacy vs isolation - individuals seek intimate relationships, failure resulting in the inability to form lasting bonds.

Erikson's Seventh stage (40s-60s)

generativity vs stagnation - focusing on contributing to future generations or experiencing stagnation due to lack of meaningful connections.

Erikson's Eighth stage (65+)

integrity vs despair - where reflection leads to satisfaction or despair, impacting one's view of life as fulfilling or wasted.

B.F. Skinner's behavioural theory

Emphasizes the study of behavior over the mind, with learning based on consequences and operant conditioning.

law of effect

Principle in Skinner's theory stating that behaviors leading to desirable outcomes are repeated, while those with undesirable consequences are less likely to recur.

operant conditioning

Learning process where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on positive or negative consequences, encouraging repetition or avoidance of actions.

social learning theory

Theory by Albert Bandura highlighting learning through observation, imitation, and the influence of social models on behavior.

observational learning

Learning process where individuals acquire new behaviors by observing others, without the immediate need for reinforcement.

reciprocal determinism

Bandura's concept where behavior is influenced by both internal cognition and the external environment, with individuals actively shaping and being shaped by their surroundings.

vicarious reinforcement

Learning through observing others being reinforced or punished for their actions, influencing one's behavior.

Attention

Factor in observational learning where focus on modeled behavior is crucial for learning.

Retention

Factor in observational learning involving the ability to remember and recall observed behaviors.

Reproduction

Factor in observational learning requiring the ability to replicate observed behaviors.

Motivation

Factor in observational learning where the desire or drive to imitate observed behaviors is influenced by reinforcement and punishment.

Attachment Theory

Based on the premise that early relationships and interactions influence social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes.

Harry Harlow

Conducted controversial experiments with rhesus monkeys, showing that comfort and emotional security are crucial for psychosocial development.

John Bowlby

Considered the 'father' of attachment theory, emphasizing the importance of early childhood experiences and the enduring impact on lifespan.

Attachment Bond

Described as the psychological connectedness between individuals, particularly the bond infants have with their primary caregiver.

Monotropy

Bowlby's concept that children have an innate need to attach to one main figure, usually the mother, which significantly impacts development.

Sensitive Period

Refers to the critical period during the first 5 years of life for healthy attachment formation.

Maternal Deprivation

Hypothesis suggesting that separation from the primary caregiver during early years leads to long-term consequences on intellectual, social, and emotional development.

Mary Ainsworth

Researched attachment between mothers and children, developing the 'Strange Situation' to assess attachment styles.

Strange Situation

A method to evaluate attachment styles, including secure, anxious/insecure-avoidant, anxious/insecure-resistant, and disorganized/fearful attachment.

Secure Attachment

Attachment style characterized by seeking comfort from caregivers, using them as a secure base, and displaying trust and empathy in relationships.

Anxious/Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Attachment style where children show distress when separated from caregivers but are not comforted upon return, often due to insensitive caregiving.

Anxious/Insecure-Resistant Attachment

Attachment style where children seek little comfort from caregivers due to inconsistent responses, leading to a lack of preference for caregivers over strangers.

Disorganized/Fearful Attachment

Atypical attachment style characterized by behaviors lacking observable patterns, often caused by unresolved attachment-related issues in caregivers.

Hierarchy of Attachments

Children can develop multiple attachment relationships with various caregivers, impacting their attachment styles.

Attachment Styles in Adulthood

Early attachment experiences influence the quality of adult romantic relationships, with secure attachment leading to stable relationships and anxious/avoidant attachment causing challenges.

secure

Feel endlessly frustrated by emotional distance of an avoidantly attached partner while an anxiously attached individual may interpret their partner's need for space as rejection.

criticism of attachment theory

A child's temperament may strongly influence attachment, not considered in the strange situation. Caregivers' attachment-based decisions are culturally influenced and will affect how attachment behavior is demonstrated and assessed in both caregiver and child.

Jean Piaget: cognitive theory development

children's cognitive processes change over time based on innate predispositions, and children at different stages of development interpret the world around them differently. Cognitive processes develop for children in qualitative ways.

schemata

Generalizations from past experiences that form a pattern of thought.

assimilation

Process where children assimilate new information or experiences into their current schemata by processing info through what they consider as comparable and making it fit with what they know.

accommodation

Process where children need to adjust or alter their schemata because new information doesn't fit into their existing models.

Piaget's sensorimotor stage (0-2)

children rapidly grow, start to think and explore the world using senses and motor activity without the support of language. Object permanence develops in older infants (18-24 months).

Piaget's preoperational stage (2-7)

children can engage in pretend play, use symbols to represent words and images, and depend on language to communicate and engage in the world around them but are unable to fully understand adult logic.

Piaget's concrete operational stage (7-11)

children develop the ability to represent ideas and events logically and more flexibly, think about real events, and build a clear grasp on numerical operations and memory strategies.

Piaget's formal operational stage (11+)

a child becomes able to engage logically not only in tangible and concrete events but also hypothetical and abstract ones, developing metacognition.

sociocultural theory of development: lev vygotsky

Theory emphasizing the importance of interactions between children with adults and peers in the development of cognitive abilities, viewing development as a socially mediated process.

Zone of Proximal Development

the distance between a child's potential to learn and the actual learning that takes place, ideal for learning to occur.

scaffolding

Supportive activities during guided participation that allow the learner the chance to practice a new task or skill while being supported in the learning, gradually lessening assistance as the learner masters the skill.

cultural artifacts

Include everything we use, from simple things such as a pen or spoon to more complex things like language, traditions, and beliefs, to facilitate how we understand the social world around us.