1865-1898

The first and last topics of each unit are just reviews so there are no note for them. These notes are based on Heimler History videos with some additions.

6.2 - Westward Expansion Economics

Mechanization of Agriculture

• The period of 1865 to 1898 saw a massive change in the agricultural West: the introduction of machines in farming.

  • Increased crop production: With machines like the mechanical reaper and combine harvester, farmers could plant and harvest more crops than before. For example, corn and wheat production roughly doubled between 1870 and 1900.

  • Decline of small farmers: Smaller farmers couldn't compete with large industrial farmers who could afford the new machines. This led to many small farms folding, with bigger farmers buying them out.

Market Effects

• As a result of increased crop production, the law of supply and demand kicked in.

  • Decrease in crop prices: Prices per bushel of corn, wheat, and other crops steeply declined, putting further pressure on small farmers who couldn't make a living at such low prices.

Challenges for All Farmers

• Besides the mechanization of agriculture, all farmers faced economic pain

  • High prices of manufactured goods: Industrial trusts kept prices high for goods like clothing and furniture, which farmers relied on to survive.

  • Railroad problems: Railroad owners charged high prices for shipping crops to market, making it difficult for farmers to make a profit.

National Grange Movement

• In response to low crop prices and railroad problems, the National Grange Movement emerged in 1868.

• The Grange soon became a political force, pushing for laws to regulate railroad rates and abusive corporate practices.

• Granger Laws: A set of laws passed in midwestern states, including the Commerce Act of 1886, which required railroad rates to be "reasonable and just" and established the Interstate Commerce Commission to enforce them.

Railroads and Westward Migration

• The federal government actively supported westward expansion

• Pacific Railroads Acts - Granted land to railroad companies to build transcontinental railroads

• Homestead Act of 1862 - Granted 160 acres of free land to settlers who would farm and settle it

• These laws facilitated mass migration to the western lands, with the transcontinental railroad completed in 1869 and four more completed over the next few decades.

Precious Metals and Westward Migration

• The discovery and extraction of gold and silver also drove westward migration.

  • California Gold Rush (1848)

    • Pike's Peak gold discovery (1869), leading to the establishment of boomtowns like Denver City and Boulder City.

    • Boomtowns were extremely diverse, with people from various racial and ethnic backgrounds.

6.3 - Westward Migration after the Civil War

Settlement of the Frontier

The settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898 was a significant period in American history. After the Civil War, many Americans began pushing westward, driven by the desire for self-sufficiency and independence. By the end of the 19th century, the vast frontier of the American continent was largely closed and settled.

Causes of Westward Migration

• Homestead Act: allowed settlers to claim free land from the government

• Transcontinental Railroads: facilitated the construction of railroads into the Great Plains region, making it easier for settlers to access the West

The Cattle Trade and Cowboy Culture

• Settlers brought large herds of cattle to the Great Plains region

• The cattle trade led to the development of a romanticized vision of the cowboy, characterized by:

  • Driving cattle across the plains

  • Riding horses

  • Hand-rolled cigarettes

  • The rugged, independent lifestyle of the American West

The End of Open Cattle Drives

• The introduction of barbed wire fencing ended the open cattle drives

• Fencing allowed settlers to claim land and mark their boundaries, leading to the decline of the cowboy culture

Sodbusters and Homesteaders

• Sodbusters: settlers who broke the soil with their plows to farm the land

• Only about 20% of settlers received land from the government through the Homestead Act

• Others bought land from railroad companies or private sellers

The Closing of the Frontier

• By 1890, the U.S. Census Bureau declared that the frontier was officially settled

• The Oklahoma Territory was opened for settlement, leading to the final push of westward expansion

The Significance of the Frontier in American History

"The closing of the frontier was not so much a cause for celebration but rather a cause for concern." - Frederick Jackson Turner

• Turner argued that the closing of the frontier was troubling because westward expansion had always been a means of releasing American discontent

• The frontier had also been a democratizing force, leveling class and social hierarchies

The Impact on Native American Populations

• The westward expansion of American settlers led to the displacement and marginalization of Native American populations

• The federal government developed the reservation system, assigning Indian populations to live on tracts of land with strict boundaries

• The reservation system was designed to assimilate Native Americans into American culture, but it led to resistance and violence

The Indian Wars and Resistance

• The Sioux Wars (1886) and the Comanche Wars were examples of Native American resistance to the federal government's policies

• The Indian Appropriation Act of 1871 ended federal recognition of Native American sovereignty and nullified previous treaties

• The Dawes Act of 1887 divided reservation lands into 160-acre plots, allowing Indians to become American citizens on the condition of assimilation

The Ghost Dance Movement

• A ritualistic dance developed by the Indian prophet Wavoka, which spread across the continent

• The movement was a final resistance to the forced assimilation of Native Americans

The Wounded Knee Massacre

• The last violent battle of the Indian Wars, in which the U.S. Army killed over 200 men, women, and children

• The massacre marked the end of the period of Indian resistance and the effective closure of the frontier

6.4 - The New South

The New South: Continuity and Change

The New South refers to the post-Civil War era in the Southern United States, characterized by economic growth, industrialization, and a shift away from the traditional agricultural economy.

The New South

A future for the South based on economic diversity, industrial growth, and laissez-faire capitalism.

Henry Grady's Vision

Henry Grady, editor of The Atlanta Constitution, coined the term "New South" and envisioned a future for the South that was more industrialized and economically diverse, similar to the North.

Growth and Development

The South experienced significant growth and development during this period, including:

• Southern cities growing and industrializing

• Industrial centers being built within cities

• Southern states surpassing New England states as top manufacturers of textiles

• Rapid growth in population and miles of new railroads constructed

Limitations of the New South

Despite these gains, the New South vision only took hold in a few isolated areas, and the South remained largely agricultural. The sharecropping system, a form of labor where workers worked on plantations in exchange for a share of the harvest, remained prevalent and was often a form of exploitation.

Racial Segregation

The South did not become more equal in terms of racial segregation. In fact, the Compromise of 1877 led to the removal of federal troops and the end of Reconstruction, allowing for the resurgence of racial segregation.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

The landmark Supreme Court case ruled that racial segregation was constitutional as long as facilities were "separate but equal." This led to the widespread implementation of Jim Crow Laws, which segregated almost every aspect of society.

Consequences of Segregation

The consequences of segregation were far-reaching and devastating, including:

• Lynch mobs and vigilante justice

• Black people being forbidden to serve on juries or run for public office

• Black people being denied the dignity of a court appearance for crimes

• Over 1,000 black people being lynched in the 1890s alone

Resistance and Reform

Despite the darkness of this period, there were significant efforts to resist and reform the system. Notable figures include:

• Ida B. Wells: Editor of a black newspaper who fiercely editorialized against lynching and Jim Crow Laws

• Henry Turner: Founder of the International Migration Society, which facilitated the migration of black Americans to Africa

• Booker T. Washington: A controversial figure who argued that economic self-sufficiency was key to black people's empowerment, but whose vision was deemed impractical by many

6.5 - Industrialization of America

Shift from Local to Global Market

Prior to industrialization, Americans made things either to use themselves or to be sold locally, or at most regionally. During this period, Americans began mass-producing goods to be sold all over the world.

The Railroads: The Granddaddy of Technological Innovations

• The railroad was the catalyst for the industrialization of America. With a quick and easy means of transporting goods, a truly national market for sales was created.

• Miles of railroads increased five-fold

• Federal government provided land grants and loan subsidies to railroad companies, granting around 170 million acres of land.

• Four new transcontinental railroads were built connecting various parts of the country.

Steel Production: The Bessemer Process

• The Bessemer Process, patented by Henry Bessemer in the 1850s, enabled manufacturers to produce a far greater quantity and quality of steel than had been done before.

Access to Natural Resources

• Other innovations that facilitated industrialization included greater access to natural resources.

  • Coal: The first major source of energy for industrialization, especially anthracite coal found mainly in Western Pennsylvania.

  • Oil: Later surpassed coal as the main fuel of industry, and later automobiles.

Communications: Telegraph and Telephone

• The telegraph, invented by Samuel Morse in 1844, multiplied significantly during this period, allowing communication to travel long distances at the speed of electricity.

  • Telegraph

  • Trans-Atlantic Cable

  • Telephone

6.6 - The Rise of Industrial Capitalism in America

Industrialism and The Gilded Age

• Industrialism describes the change in the way things are made for sale, specifically the move toward mass production and mass consumption of goods.

• This period of American history is known as The Gilded Age, which implies a layer of gold covering something, but it is rotten underneath..

The Dominance of Large Corporations and Trusts

• During The Gilded Age, small, locally owned businesses became obsolete and defunct due to the rise of large corporations and trusts that dominated entire industries

  • Oil - John D. Rockefeller

  • Steel - Andrew Carnegie

Horizontal and Vertical Integration

• Horizontal Integration: One company buys out all its competitors until there is effectively no competition left. (Standard Oil's strategy)

• Vertical Integration: A company acquires all the complementary industries that support its business. (Andrew Carnegie's strategy)

The Drive for Empire

Industrial leaders looked abroad to gain control over foreign markets and resources, influencing America's expansion into an empire.

The Factors Enabling Industrial Leaders' Success

• Laissez Faire Government Policies: Government non-intervention in business practices, allowing industrial leaders to operate with minimal regulation.

• Underpaid Labor: Exploitation of immigrants, women, and children, who were vastly underpaid and had no bargaining power.

• Social Darwinism: The application of biological Darwinism to economics, arguing that strong companies should dominate weak ones, concentrating wealth in the hands of the "fittest."

Mitigating the Harsh Realities: The Gospel of Wealth

Andrew Carnegie argued that those with extraordinary wealth had a duty to invest their wealth back into society through generous acts of philanthropy, giving away millions to build libraries, concert halls, and universities.

Captains of Industry or Robber Barons?

Industrial leaders like Carnegie and Rockefeller can be viewed as either Captains of Industry(favorable opinion) or Robber Barons (negative connotation).

6.7 - The Gilded Age

The Bourgeoisie

• This class of wealthy business owners largely surpassed the previous generation in terms of wealth.

• They exhibited conspicuous consumption, a phrase coined by economist Thornstein Veblen to describe the display of wealth for everyone to see.

  • The Biltmore House, the largest private residence in the nation, boasting over 175,000 square feet of floor space, 35 bedrooms, and 43 bathrooms.

The Working Class

• Many people lived in poverty, with wages below a comfortable standard of living.

• The working class suffered during economic turmoil, such as the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893.

However, it's essential to note that:

• Due to the rise of mass production, prices of common items decreased.

• Although wages were meager, they rose across the board, making more goods and services available to industrial workers.

• The gap between the rich and poor grew, but many Americans saw their standards of living rise.

Labor Unions

• Workers formed labor unions to increase wages and force better safety standards in the workplace.

• Labor unions employed various tactics, including:

  • Political action

  • Slowdowns

  • Strikes

Notable Strikes

The Great Railroad Strike - Railroad companies cut wages, leading to a strike that spread to 11 states and shut down over 60% of the nation's railroads.

Pullman Strike - George Pullman cut wages, leading to a strike that involves the American Railway Union (ARU) and its leader, Eugene V. Debs.

Labor Unions and Their Goals

• Knights of Labor - Wanted to destroy trusts and monopolies and abolish child labor. Inclusive to everyone

• American Federation of Labor - Wanted higher wages and safer working conditions, only for skilled white men,

• Child labor was a significant issue, with children as young as 10, and sometimes younger, making up 18% of the workforce by the end of the 19th century.

6.8 - Immigration and Migration

Distinction between Immigration and Migration

Immigration is when a group of folks moves from one country to another. Migration is when a group of folks moves WITHIN the same country from region to region.

Immigration (1865-1898)

• The U.S. population grew by a multiple of three during this period, with 16 million immigrants arriving on American shores.

  • Europe, especially the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe

  • Russia, Italy, and the Balkans

  • Asia, largely Chinese people, who flooded in during the California Gold Rush days in the 1840s and 1850s

• These immigrants settled in industrial cities like Chicago, Pittsburgh, and New York, drawn by the promise of opportunity and a better life.

• They largely became part of the industrial workforce, making it more diverse.

Impact of Immigration on Cities

• As a result of immigration, cities began to change:

• Urbanization - Industrial cities grew rapidly, with immigrants and the working class crowding into hastily built tenements

• Bifurcation - The middle class and the wealthy left the cities, moving away from the urban hustle

• Squalid Conditions - Working-class districts became overcrowded, poorly ventilated, and prone to disease outbreaks

• Ethnic Enclaves - Immigrants from the same cultures established their own communities, re-establishing cultural institutions and finding solidarity

Migration within the United States

• One significant migration during this period was the Exoduster Movement, a mass migration of Southern black people into the West.

  • After Reconstruction the black population was left to fend for themselves without federal protection of their rights

  • Terrorist groups like the KKK grew and disenfranchised black people

  • Jim Crow Laws segregated southern society and disenfranchised black folks

• The Exodusters who migrated to Kansas, Oklahoma, and Colorado were assisted by organizations like the Colored Relief Board and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society.

6.9 - American Responses to Immigration

Migration

• In this period, the United States experienced a massive influx of European and Asian immigrants, leading to debates and conflicts over their integration into American society.

Nativism

• Nativism is a policy of protecting the interests of native-born individuals over those of immigrants.

• Nativists, including Protestant ministers like Henry Cabot Lodge, argued that the influx of immigrants from "inferior races" was leading to "race suicide" among white Anglo-Saxon Americans.

• They formed groups like the American Protective Association (APA), which targeted Catholics, particularly Irish immigrants.

Labor Union Opposition

• Labor unions also opposed immigration, fearing that the influx of desperate workers would undermine their ability to negotiate with manufacturers.

• Immigrants would agree to work for meager wages, which old break strikes and reduce the bargaining power of unionized workers.

Social Darwinism

• Social Darwinism is a pseudoscientific idea that applies biological Darwinism to societal realities.

• Proponents of Social Darwinism believed that immigrants (including Irish immigrants) were racially inferior to white Americans.

• They argued that allowing these immigrants to intermingle with American women would degrade the gene pool.

Responses on the West Coast

On the West Coast, the majority of immigrants were from Asia, with a significant portion being Chinese. Chinese immigrants faced hostility from nativists, who blamed them for economic troubles during the Panic of 1873. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed, banning further Chinese immigration to the United States.

A Beacon of Hope: Jane Addams

Jane Addams, a social reformer, recognized the struggles of immigrants and sought to help them. She established settlement houses, including the famous Hull House, to provide assistance and promote assimilation.

• English language instruction: To help immigrants assimilate

• Early childhood education programs: To provide opportunities for immigrant children

• Democratic ideals instruction: To promote understanding of American democracy

• Recreational outings: To facilitate social integration

6.10 - The Rise of the Middle Class

Corporate Structure

• Large corporation structure

  • Executives: top management

  • Middle Managers: responsible for day-to-day operations

  • Laborers: worked in factories

• Middle managers, also known as white-collar workers, did not engage in manual labor and were responsible for supporting the executives.

The Growth of Middle-Class Occupations

• The rise of middle managers led to an increase in other support occupations

  • Accountants

  • Legal services

  • Healthcare professionals

  • Clerical workers

• Women's roles in the workforce expanded like clerical positions with the introduction of the typewriter.

• Many women learned to type and entered the workforce, earning wages and contributing to the growth of the middle class.

Characteristics of the Middle Class

• The middle class was defined by:

  • Higher wages compared to the working class

  • Shorter working days

  • Increased leisure time and disposable income

Leisure Time Activities

• The rise of the middle class led to an increase in leisure time activities, including:

  • Visiting amusement parks like Coney Island

  • Attending P.T. Barnum's circuses

  • Participating in spectator sports like baseball and American football

Andrew Carnegie's Gospel of Wealth

• It is the duty of the rich to invest their money into society in order to produce a more just and equitable future for the many.

• Carnegie believed that hard work led to wealth, and that the rich had a responsibility to use their wealth to create opportunities for the poor to better themselves.

Philanthropic Efforts

• Carnegie invested in cultural institutions

  • Free Public Libraries

  • Universities

  • Concert FallS

• Phoebe Apperson Hearst shared similar views and invested in education, aiming to provide equal opportunities for the poor and upper-class individuals.

6.11 - Industrial Capitalism and Reform Movements

What is Industrial Capitalism?

Industrial capitalism refers to an economic system where factories and machines are used to mass-produce goods on a large scale, leading to the growth of industries and the accumulation of wealth.

Characteristics of Industrial Capitalism

• Laissez-faire capitalism: The government intervenes rarely in economic operations, allowing businesses to operate with minimal regulations.

• Mass production: Goods are produced on a large scale using machines and factories.

• Unskilled labor: Tens of thousands of workers operate machines day in and day out. •

• Wealth accumulation: The elite upper class accumulates most of the wealth generated by industries.

Problems of Industrial Capitalism

• Low wages: Workers' wages were barely enough to survive.

• Dangerous working conditions: Factories were hazardous, leading to worker injuries and deaths.

• Long working hours: Workers put in 12-14 hour days, often in dark and harsh conditions.

Reform Movements

Henry George and the Single Tax

Henry George, a politician and economist, advocated for a single tax on land to address the wealth disparity between the elite and the working class. He believed that those who owned large tracts of land gained disproportionate wealth from land value increases, and therefore should be taxed more.

Utopians and Edward Bellamy

Edward Bellamy, a utopian writer, wrote Looking Backward (1888), a novel that depicted a socialist utopia where capitalism was abolished and everyone's needs were met. This ideology gained traction during the late 19th century.

Socialism

Socialism emphasizes community ownership and regulation of the means of production to benefit everyone equally. During this period, socialism gained popularity, especially in Europe. Notable figures like Eugene V. Debs started the Socialist Party of America in 1901.

The Social Gospel

The Social Gospel movement focused on applying Christian principles to cure the ills of society. Protestant preachers crusaded for social justice, urging the middle class to take up the mantle of solving urban poverty.

Women's Suffrage

In 1890, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) to secure women's right to vote.

Temperance Movement

The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874, advocated for total abstinence from alcohol. Carrie Nation, a radical temperance activist, used violent methods to combat alcohol consumption.

• Henry George's Single Tax

  • Address wealth disparity between elite and working class

• Utopians

  • Edward Bellamy

  • Depict a socialist utopia where capitalism is abolished

• Socialism

  • Eugene V. Debs

  • Community ownership and regulation of means of production

• Social Gospel

  • Protestant preachers

  • Apply Christian principles to cure social ills

• Women's Suffrage

  • Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony

  • Secure women's right to vote

• Temperance Movement

  • Carrie Nation, WCTU

6.12 - The Role of Government

The Debate Over Government Intervention

The Gilded Age saw a fierce debate over the role of government in the economy, a debate that stretched back to the founding of the country. This debate involved Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson over the National Bank, and later, Henry Clay's American System.

Laissez-Faire Economics

The dominant economic ideology during the Gilded Age was laissez-faire economics, which translates to "leave alone" or "let alone." This ideology was first proposed by Adam Smith in his book The Wealth of Nations (1776). Smith argued that economies are best governed by the laws of supply and demand, and that if people are left to make decisions in their own best interest, the invisible hand of the market will lead to the flourishing of society.

Laissez Faire Economics - Mimimal Government interventional

Invisible Hand - The economy will naturally right itself because of supply and demand

Supply and Demand - The fundamentals that govern capitalism.

Criticisms of Laissez-Faire Economics

While Gilded Age politicians and industrialists supported laissez-faire economics, they often forgot that Adam Smith's scenario required competition to function effectively. However, business leaders had consolidated power in their respective industries, eliminating competition. Despite this, they continued to argue against government regulation.

Government Response to Economic Downturns

During economic downturns, such as the Panic of 1893, the federal government often did little to alleviate the crisis. In some cases, they created half-hearted measures, like the Interstate Commerce Commission, which was underfunded and had no real power to regulate industries.

Government Intervention in Business 📈

Although the government rarely intervened in business regulation, they did get involved when it benefited business and the economy. Examples include:

• Supporting the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, leading to the annexation of Hawaii in 1898

• Establishing the Open Door Policy with China in 1899-1900, promoting equal trading rights in all Chinese ports

6.13 Politics in the Gilded Age

Corruption and Laissez-Faire Attitude

The Gilded Age was marked by a laissez-faire attitude towards government intervention, leading to widespread corruption. The major parties, Democrats and Republicans, had beliefs that corresponded to the lingering divisions of the Civil War.

• Democrats: mainly Southerners, championed states' rights and racial segregation, and could usually count on votes from big city political machines and immigrants.

• Republicans: the northern, more industrial party, could count on votes from black people, middle-class businessmen, and Protestants.

Patronage and Civil Service

• Patronage: the practice of awarding federal jobs to faithful party supporters.

• Civil Service Reform: aimed to correct the patronage system, leading to the passage of the Pendleton Act of 1881, which replaced patronage with a competitive examination.

Contentious Issues

• Civil Service: the issue of getting jobs in the federal government, which led to the passage of the Pendleton Act.

• Money: the debate over the gold standard, inflation, and the money supply.

• Tariffs: taxes on imported goods, which were a significant source of federal revenue.

Tariffs and Their Impact

Protective Tariffs - Protected American businesses, but burdened farmers and consumers.

Retaliatory Tariffs - Enacted by other nations, leading to lower international sales for American crops.

The Populist Party

• Populist Party: sought to work for the people and correct the concentration of economic power held by elite banks and trusts.

• Omaha Platform: published in 1892, advocated for political and economic reforms, including:

  • Direct election of senators

  • Initiatives and referendums

  • Unlimited coinage of silver

  • Graduated income tax

  • Eight-hour workday

Urban Politics

• Political Machines: groups of people who controlled urban politics, often through corrupt means.

• Tammany Hall: the most famous political machine, run by Boss Tweed, which organized the needs of businesses, immigrants, and the poor, but also stole millions of dollars through schemes of deceit and fraud.