intro to behavioral neuroscience-final exam

sleep

state that the brain actively produces

EEG

measures brain activity using electrodes

trend of EEG changes

-low amplitude, high frequency waves-high amplitude, low frequency waves

alpha waves

beings a state of relaxation

stage 1 sleep

-sleep has just begun-irregular, jagged, low voltage waves-brain activity begins to decline

stage 2 sleep is characterized by

sleep spindles and K complexes

sleep spindles

12- to 14-Hz waves during a burst that lasts at least half a second

K complex

a sharp high-amplitude negative wave followed by a smaller, slower positive wave

stage 3 and 4 sleep constitute slow wave sleep (SWS) and are characterized by

-delta waves-slowing of heart rate, breathing rate, and brain. activity-synchronized neuronal activity

REM sleep

stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity

stages other than REM

non-REM (NREM)

each sleep cycle lasts

90 minutes

the length of stage 3 and 4 sleep

decreases the longer you sleep

length of REM sleep

increases the longer you sleep

cerveau isole

isolated forebrain; animals shows constant unresponsiveness and SWS

encephale isole

isolated brain; shows responsiveness and sleep wake patterns

ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)

a series of nervous tissues keeping the human system in a state of consciousness.

4 states that interact to mediate states of arousal

-forebrain system-brainstem system-pontine system-hypothalamic system

forebrain system

can display SWS by itself

brainstem system

activates forebrain into wakefulness

pontine system

triggers REM sleep

hypothalamic system

coordinates the other three brain regions to determine sleep/wake

stimulation of the pre optic area (POA)

produces sleepiness

lesions produce

insomnia

tubermammillary nucleus

increasing arousal

reticular formation

collection of cells throughout the brainstem

locus coeruleus

major source of norepinephrine, alertness

lateral hypothalamus and tuberomammillary nucleus utilize a peptide transmitter called

hypocretin

hypocretin

ensure a smooth transition across both sleep and waking states; stimulatory effects on arousal

narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks

cataplexy

sudden loss of muscle control, can be caused by strong emotions

4 functions ascribed to sleep

-energy conservation-niche adaptation-body restoration-memory consolidation

energy conservation

reduced body temp, slower respiration and heart rate

niche adaptation

sleep enforces adaptation to a particular ecological niche

body restoration

sleep helps rebuild and restore body materials and functions

memory consolidation

sleep promotes memory consolidation

modanifil

amphetamine used for narcolepsy and cataplexy

somnambulism

sleepwalking

SIDS

due to abnormalities in brainstem circuits that regulate respiration

charles darwin (emotions)

argued that basic emotions characterize a species

support for darwin

emotional expressions are the same across cultures

universal facial expressions

anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, contempt, and embarrassment

4 dimensions of emotions

physiological, actions, motivation, and feelings

physiological dimension

autonomic and endocrine responses

William James

founded field of psychology

William James argument

nervous system is predisposed to respond in certain ways to certain features of the environment

James-lange theory

emotion results from autonomic arousal triggered by stimuli in the environment

James-lange theory predictions

-People with a weak autonomic or skeletal response should feel less emotion-Increasing one's response should enhance an emotion

Walter cannon

first to observe that movement of digestive organs decreased when animals were aroused

Cannon-Bard Theory

emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) autonomic arousal responses and fear

sham rage

5-fold increase in blood glucose levels and increased secretions of the adrenal gland

posterior hypothalamus

expression of emotions

Walter hess

first to electrically stimulate the brain in awake animals

James papez

proposed that many subcortical brain regions were involved in emotion

action dimension

laughing, attacking/fleeing in fear

conditioned stimulus is paired with a

noxious stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) and will result in fear responses when only presenting the CS alone

sensory info related to the threat is the conveyed to the

lateral nucleus of the amygdala

information is processed through the amygdala and then to the

central amygdala

periaqueductal gray

defensive behaviors

autonomic activation

through the lateral hypothalamus

stress hormone responses

through BST and PVH

olds and milner

brain self stimulation; rats will bar press to receive electrical stimulation when electrodes are implanted in the septal region

medial forebrain bundle

a collection of axons traveling in the midline region of the forebrain

VTA-DA neurons play a role in predicting

reward and aversive related cues

feelings dimension

subjective experience

insular cortex

activated during exposure to stimuli perceived as disgusting

General Adaptation Syndrome

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion

sympathtic nervous system

fight or flight

HPA axis

produces endocrine changes to enable adaptation

paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus

final common pathway in the brain for activation of HPA axis

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)

peptide synthesized and secreted by neurons in the PVH

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol

cortisol is a

glucocorticoid hormone

primary relays

BST, dorsomedial, and posterior hypothalamus

4 things cortisol does in response to threats from the environment

-increases blood sugar by activating glucose metabolism-catabolizes fat and proteins-inhibits immune function-cognitive adjustments via direct actions in the brain

glucocorticoid mediated negative feedback

Once the stressor subsides, cortisol "feeds back" onto the brain to shut off HPA axis response

2 factors for stress appraisal

predictability and controllability

Robert Sapolsky

researched baboons, cortisol levels remain high in chronically stressed monkeys

prolonged cortisol from HPA hyperactivity secretion may inhibit

growth hormone release

early maternal experiences produce

epigenetic changes

Cushing's disease

endocrine syndrome where cortisol levels are chronically elevated

fraction of US population that develop a mental illness

1/3

psychosurgery

using surgery to treat mental illness

lobotomy

frontal lobe lesions

Walter freeman

doctor who popularized lobotomies

stress-related mental illnesses

-major depressive illness-reactive depression-anxiety disorders-PTSD

commorbidity

overlap of two or more disorders in a single individual

PTSD

occurs after certain cases of terrifying experiences

symptoms of PTSD

-frequent distressing recollections-nightmares-avoidance of reminders of the event-exaggerated arousal in response to noise and other stimuli

PTSD victims have been shown to have

smaller hippocampal and prefrontal cortical volumes

PTSD patients show

greater sensitivity of autonomic/sympathetic

reactive depression

due to an adverse life event

major depressive disorder

-severe, prolonged depression-extreme feelings of sadness and helplessness everyday for weeks on end

symptoms of MDD

-lack of energy-feelings of worthlessness-suicidal thoughts-disrupted sleep patterns-difficulty concentrating-loss of pleasure

depression has a high

concordance rate from twin studies

MAO (monoamine oxidase)

presynaptic enzyme that degrades neurotransmitters into metabolites

MAO inhibitors

blocks MAO activity and thus prevents the breakdown of monoamine NTs

Iproniazid

MAO inhibitor

reserpine

makes monoamine vesicles leaky

monoamine hypothesis of depression (schildkraut and kelly, 1967)

depression is caused by low 5-HT and NE neurotransmitter activity