Introduction to Political Science and Politics

New social movements

Movements that focus on issues beyond economic interests, such as environmentalism, gender equality, and human rights.

Difference between new and traditional social movements

New movements emphasize quality-of-life improvements rather than economic class struggles.

Examples of new social movements

Environmental movements, feminist movements, LGBTQ+ rights activism, and animal welfare campaigns.

Supporters of new social movements

The new middle class, including teachers, academics, and students.

Common strategies of new social movements

Online activism, peaceful protests, and awareness campaigns through social media.

Politics as an activity

Politics is the activity where people create, keep, and change rules that affect everyone. (Heywood)

Politics as an arena

Politics is a space where people enter or leave depending on their role, including government and public affairs.

Politics as public affairs

Politics can focus only on government actions (narrow view) or include areas like art and culture (wider view).

Politics as power

Politics is about power—the ability to make someone do what you want them to do.

Politics as consensus and compromise

Politics is about solving problems by making agreements between groups with different ideas. (Crick)

Ethics in research

Respecting the rights, privacy, and well-being of research participants and considering the impact of research results.

Role of people in politics

The general population interacts with and influences the state and its institutions.

Role of government in politics

Government enforces laws, maintains order, and oversees the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches.

Gatekeepers in politics

Groups that mediate between the government and the people, such as political parties and the media.

Inputs in a political system

Demands and support from citizens directed toward the political system.

Outputs in a political system

Laws, policies, and actions taken by the government in response to inputs.

Western Polyarchy

A modern form of liberal democracy often called "rule by many," where elected officials govern on behalf of the people.

Rousseau's view on developmental democracy

Freedom is "obedience to a law one prescribes to oneself," emphasizing direct democracy and general will.

Mill's view on developmental democracy

Mill supports broad participation but favors plural voting, fearing the tyranny of the majority.

People’s democracy

A form of democracy rooted in Marxist tradition, emphasizing social equality and collective ownership.

Insider groups in politics

Groups with formal access to the government, often consulted during policy-making.

Outsider groups in politics

Groups without formal access that influence politics through protests and campaigns.

New Right perspective on politics

A skeptical view of government intervention, emphasizing free markets and limited government.

Heywood’s definition of ideology

A set of ideas that provides a framework for understanding the world and guiding political action.

Karl Marx’s view on ideology

Ideology serves the ruling class by creating false consciousness to maintain power.

International view of the state

The state is seen as the basic unit in international politics, representing a country on the global stage.

Social-democratic state

A state that intervenes in society to promote fairness, equality, and social justice.

Core principles of liberalism

Individualism, freedom, reason, equality, toleration, consent, and constitutionalism.

Main ideas of conservatism

Tradition, human imperfection, hierarchy, authority, and private property.

Key principles of socialism

Cooperation, social equality, common ownership, and opposition to capitalism.

Political party

A group of people organized to win power in government and influence policies.

Left-wing parties

Parties that support social equality, workers’ rights, and progressive change.

Right-wing parties

Parties that emphasize tradition, stability, and free markets.

One-party system

A system where only one party is allowed to govern, often in authoritarian regimes.

Two-party system

A system where two major parties dominate elections and governance.

Dominant-party system

A system where multiple parties exist, but one party dominates elections for extended periods.

Multi-party system

A system where multiple parties compete and coalition governments are common.

Political participation

Activities where people engage in political processes, such as voting and protesting.

Types of political participation

Voting, party campaigning, communal activities, contacting representatives, and protests.

Voting in political participation

The act of choosing representatives or policies in elections, serving as the most common and fundamental form of democratic participation.

Party campaigning

Supporting a political party by attending rallies, distributing leaflets, canvassing, or donating to campaigns.

Communal activities in political participation

Engaging in local initiatives such as volunteering, joining civic groups, or working on neighborhood projects to address social issues.

Contacting representatives

Communicating directly with elected officials through letters, emails, phone calls, or town hall meetings to express concerns or opinions.

Demonstrations and petitions

Participating in protests, marches, or signing petitions (including online ones) to advocate for political or social change.

Reasons for civic disengagement

Political complexity, distrust of politicians, media negativity, individualism, and free-rider mentality.

Socialization in politics

The process through which individuals learn political beliefs, values, and behaviors.

Trustee model of representation

Representatives make decisions based on their own judgment, not just voter preferences.

Delegate model of representation

Representatives follow the direct wishes of their voters.

Dominant-ideology model of voting

A theory that media and elite influence shape political opinions and voting behavior.

Bridging social capital

Social connections that link diverse groups, promoting inclusivity.

Bonding social capital

Strong ties within close groups, promoting unity but potentially excluding outsiders.

Party-identification model of voting

The idea that people vote based on long-term loyalty to a political party.

Sociological model of voting

The idea that social factors like class, religion, and ethnicity influence how people vote.

Rational-choice model of voting

The belief that voters make logical decisions based on self-interest and policy benefits.

Political culture

The shared beliefs, values, and attitudes people have about politics and government.

Three types of culture

Political culture

Civic culture

A political culture that supports democracy by balancing participation

Three types of civic culture

Participant culture

Participant culture

A culture where people are actively involved in politics and believe their participation makes a difference.

Subject culture

A culture where people follow politics but feel they have little influence over government decisions.

Parochial culture

A culture where people are mostly focused on local issues and do not engage with national politics.

Social capital

The networks of trust and cooperation that help society function.

Media as a public watchdog in democracy

The role of monitoring powerful figures and exposing corruption.

Concerns about media in democracy

Media bias

Media influence on governance

Affects political leadership

Presidentialization in politics

When leaders act more like presidents

New media

Digital platforms like social media

Effects of new media on politics

Changes in election campaigns

Social movements

Groups of people working together to achieve a common goal

Types of action in social movements

Mass action, Collective behaviour and Collective action

Mass action

Individual acts that collectively create a large social effect

Collective behavior

People acting in the same way due to a shared situation or influence

Collective action

A coordinated effort where people actively organize and work together toward a goal

Six stages of social movements (Neil Smelser)

1. Structural Conduciveness

2. Structural Strain

3. General Beliefs

4. Precipitating Factoe

5. Mobilisation for action

6. Failure of social control

Structural conduciveness

The presence of conditions that allow a movement to begin

Structural strain

A situation causing dissatisfaction

Generalized beliefs in social movements

Shared ideas about who is responsible for a problem and how to solve it

Precipitating factors in social movements

Specific events that trigger mass action

Mobilization for action

The stage when people organize and participate in the movement through protests

Failure of social control

When authorities fail to stop a movement

Independent variable

A factor that influences the dependent variable but is not affected by it.

Dependent variable

The outcome or effect being studied

Idiographic approach

Focuses on a single case in great detail.

Nomothetic approach

Looks at general patterns across multiple cases.

Inductive research

Starts with observations and builds a theory.

Deductive research

Starts with a theory and tests it using data.

Qualitative data

Data represented in words

Quantitative data

Data represented in numbers

Liberal democracy

A system with regular elections

Totalitarianism

A system with an official ideology

Authoritarianism

A system where authority is imposed without the consent of the people

Negative freedom

Freedom from external interference

Positive freedom

The ability to take control of one’s life and participate in society.

Classical democracy

A direct form of democracy where citizens make decisions themselves rather than through representatives.

Protective democracy

A system designed to protect citizens from government overreach by ensuring basic rights and separation of powers.

Developmental democracy

A system emphasizing participation

Communal groups

Groups people belong to automatically

Institutional groups

Groups connected to formal organizations

Associational groups

Organized associations formed intentionally for specific purposes

Interest group

A group that seeks to influence politics without holding office.