Exam 2 Study Guide

Development of Rational Choice Theory 

The evolution of rational choice theory from classical criminology, emphasizing that individuals make calculated decisions to commit crime based on costs and benefits. 

Classical criminology 

An early school of thought that assumes people have free will and commit crimes to maximize pleasure and minimize pain, with punishment used to deter behavior.

Marginal deterrence 

when two crimes carry similar punishments, offenders may choose the more serious crime since the penalty is no greater. 

Positivist criminology 

explains crime as the result of external social or individual factors such as poverty, biology, or environment rather than free will. 

Offense-specific 

The concept that offenders evaluate the characteristics of a particular crime (like risk and reward) before deciding to commit it. 

Offender-specific crime 

The idea that individual traits, needs, and abilities influence whether a person decides to commit a crime. 

Situational crime prevention 

A strategy that reduces crime by limiting opportunities and making criminal acts more difficult or less rewarding in specific settings. 

 

Defensible space 

The concept that modifying physical environments can reduce crime by decreasing opportunities for offending. 

Crime discouragers 

People or guardians (like managers or property owners) who increase the risk of crime by monitoring and controlling behavior. 

Diffusion

When efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally reduce other crimes as well. 

Displacement 

When crime control efforts cause offenders to shift their activities to different locations, targets, or types of crime. 

General deterrence

A crime control strategy that uses the threat of punishment to discourage the general public from committing crimes. 

Restrictive deterrence 

When the threat of punishment reduces the frequency or seriousness of crime without eliminating it entirely. 

Specific deterrence 

The idea that punishment is meant to prevent an individual offender from committing future crimes. 

Recidivism

The tendency of a convicted offender to reoffend after punishment or release. 

Incapacitation effect 

The reduction of crime achieved by keeping offenders confined so they cannot commit additional offenses. 

Crackdowns

Intensive enforcement efforts that focus police resources on specific problem areas or crimes to reduce or eliminate them. 

Focused deterrence 

A targeted strategy that combines enforcement and social interventions to discourage specific crimes or offenders. 

Just desert 

The principle that offenders deserve punishment that is fair and proportional to the harm caused by their crime. 

Trait Theory

The idea that people commit crimes because of individual biological or psychological characteristics.

Positivism

The belief that behavior should be studied through scientific observation and evidence

Biological Determinism

The belief that criminal behavior is inherited through genetics

Physiognomy

The study of facial features to determine personality or criminal tendencies

Phrenology

The study of skull shape to predict behavior and traits

Somatotype Theory

A theory that body type is linked to personality and likelihood of crime.

Biosocial Theory

The idea that crime results from a combination of biological traits and environmental factors

Sociobiology

The study of how genetics and environment influence social behavior, including crime

Biochemical Conditions

Body chemistry (diet, hormones, substances) that can influence behavior

Amygdala

The brain structure that processes fear and threats, linked to aggression

ADHD

A disorder involving impulsivity and inattention linked to delinquency

Arousal Theory

The idea that some people seek stimulation (like crime) to reach a normal excitement level

Genetic Theory

The belief that criminal behavior can be inherited

Parental Deviance

The idea that criminal parents are more likely to have criminal children.

Twin Studies

Research comparing twins to determine if crime is genetic

Adoption Studies

Studies comparing adopted children to biological vs. adoptive parents to test genetic influence

Contagion Effect

The idea that behavior spreads through close contact, like between siblings

Evolutionary Theory

The idea that criminal behavior developed to help survival and reproduction

R/K Selection Theory

A theory that some people reproduce quickly (risk-taking) while others invest more in offspring (less crime).

Cheater Theory

The idea that some males evolved to deceive and exploit others for reproductive success

Individual Vulnerability Model

Some people are born with traits that directly lead to crime

Differential Susceptibility Model

Some people are more affected by environmental influences due to their traits.

Primary Prevention

Programs that stop crime before it starts

Secondary Prevention

Programs targeting at-risk individuals

Tertiary Prevention

Programs for people already involved in crime to prevent reoffending

Socially disorganized

Areas where social institutions (family, school, community) have broken down, leading to higher crime

Stratified society

A society divided into layers (classes) based on unequal distribution of wealth, power, and status

Social classes

Groups of people who share similar economic positions, lifestyles, and opportunities

Culture of poverty

A set of values and norms in lower-class communities that can perpetuate poverty and conflict with mainstream society

Social disorganization theory

The idea that crime occurs in communities where social control systems have broken down

Strain theory

Crime results when people feel frustration from being unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means

Strain

The stress or frustration individuals feel when they cannot achieve desired goals

Cultural deviance theory

Combines strain and social disorganization, suggesting crime arises from subcultures with values that differ from mainstream society

Transitional neighborhoods

Inner-city areas with high poverty, population turnover, and crime rates

Siege mentality

A mindset in which residents of high-crime areas become distrustful of outsiders and authority

Collective efficacy

The level of trust and willingness of community members to work together to maintain social order

Anomie

A state of normlessness where social rules are unclear or weakened

Theory of anomie

Suggests crime occurs when there is a disconnect between societal goals and the means to achieve them

Social adaptations

The ways individuals respond to strain (conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion)

General strain theory

Explains that crime results from multiple types of stress that create negative emotions

Negative affective states

Emotions like anger or frustration that increase the likelihood of criminal behavior

Subculture

A group within society that has its own values and norms distinct from the dominant culture

Conduct norms

Behavioral expectations within a group or subculture

Culture conflict

A clash between the values of different groups, often leading to deviance.

Status frustration

The feeling of failure when individuals cannot meet society’s standards of success, often leading to delinquency

Differential opportunity

The idea that access to both legitimate and illegitimate opportunities varies, shaping different types of criminal behavior

Social Process Theory

Explains that crime is learned through social interactions and influenced by relationships and institutions

Socialization

The process by which individuals learn norms, values, and behaviors from society.

Social Learning Theory

People learn criminal behavior through close relationships, including techniques and attitudes toward crime.

Differential Association Theory

Individuals become criminal when exposed to more pro-crime attitudes than anti-crime ones

Differential Reinforcement

Behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments associated with actions

Denial of Responsibility

Offenders claim their actions were beyond their control

Denial of Injury

Offenders believe no real harm was done

Denial of the Victim

Offenders justify actions by blaming the victim.

Condemnation of the Condemners

Offenders shift blame to those judging them

Appeal to Higher Loyalties

Offenders justify crimes as serving a greater good.

Social Control Theory

Crime occurs when a person’s bond to society is weak or broken

Labeling Theory

People become criminals when society labels them and they accept that identity.

Self-Labeling

Individuals internalize labels and act accordingly

Deviant Cliques

Groups formed by labeled individuals that reinforce criminal behavior

Differential Enforcement

Certain groups are more likely to be labeled or punished

Critical criminologists

Social critics who study crime by examining inequalities and power imbalances in society

Critical criminology

A theory that views crime and law as tools used by powerful groups to maintain control and inequality

Capitalist bourgeoisie

The wealthy class that owns businesses and controls economic resources in a capitalist society

Proletariat

The working class who sell their labor and have little control over economic power.

Supranational crimes

Serious crimes like genocide or war crimes that violate international laws and human rights

Surplus value

The profit gained by business owners from workers’ labor beyond what the workers are paid

Marginalization

The process of pushing individuals or groups out of mainstream society and economic stability

State-organized crime

Illegal acts committed by government officials in the course of their duties

Instrumental theorists

Scholars who believe laws are tools used by the wealthy to control lower classes

Structural theorists

Scholars who believe laws serve to protect and maintain the overall capitalist system, not just the rich

Intersectionality

The idea that overlapping social identities (like race, gender, and class) shape experiences of inequality

Power-control theory

A theory that explains crime based on how power and gender roles are structured within families

Peacemaking

An approach that focuses on reducing crime through cooperation, compassion, and social harmony

Restorative justice

A system that repairs harm by bringing together offenders, victims, and the community

Reintegrative shaming

A process where offenders are made to feel shame for their actions but are welcomed back into society afterward

Sentencing circle

A group discussion involving victims, offenders, and community members to decide fair consequences

Developmental Criminology

A view of criminal behavior that emphasizes dynamic changes in a person's life course, focusing on the onset, continuity, and desistance of a criminal career

Life Course Theories

The perspective that social and personal factors shaping human behavior change over the life course and are influenced by human interactions

Latent Trait Theories

The belief that a "master trait" or stable feature present at birth influences behavior and controls choices throughout a person's life

Trajectory Theory

The view that there are multiple independent paths to a criminal career and different classes or types of criminals