AP WORLD Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization (1945–1991)

Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization (1945–1991):

• The Cold War (1945–1991):

  • A global ideological conflict between the United States (capitalism & democracy) and the Soviet Union (communism & authoritarianism).

  • Fought through proxy wars, arms race, and economic/political influence, rather than direct military confrontation.

• Decolonization led to independence movements worldwide, but many new nations faced economic, political, and social challenges.

• The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991), reshaping global politics.

Why the U.S. and U.S.S.R. Became Superpowers:

1. Economic Advantages

   1. United States:

      1. WWII revived the U.S. economy, and → industrial sector expanded.

      2. Minimal destruction on U.S. soil (only Pearl Harbor attacked).

      3. Marshall Plan (1948–1952) → Sent $13 billion to rebuild Western Europe, increasing U.S. influence.

      4. Became the world’s richest and strongest economy.

   2. Soviet Union:

      1. State-controlled economy allowed rapid recovery after WWII.

      2. Significant natural resources & workforce → focused on heavy industry (steel, coal, oil).

      3. Rebuilt military and expanded influence over Eastern Europe.

2. Technological and Military Advantages

   1. United States:

      1. Manhattan Project → Developed the atomic bomb (used in Hiroshima & Nagasaki, 1945).

      2. Superior air force & global naval power.

2. Soviet Union:

   1. Developed nuclear weapons (1949) → Created a nuclear arms race.

   2. Space Race: The USSR launched Sputnik (1957), the first artificial satellite.

Key Features of the Cold War:

1. Arms Race & Nuclear Tensions

   1. Both nations built large nuclear arsenals → Led to Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).

   2. The U.S. developed the hydrogen bomb (1952); the USSR followed in 1953.

   3. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Closest moment to nuclear war.

2. Political & Military Alliances

1. NATO (1949) → U.S.-led military alliance with Western Europe.

2. Warsaw Pact (1955) → USSR-led military alliance with Eastern Europe.

3. The world became divided into “First World” (U.S. & allies), “Second World” (USSR & allies), and “Third World” (non-aligned nations).

3. Proxy Wars (Indirect Conflicts)

1. Korean War (1950–1953): North Korea (USSR-backed) vs. South Korea (U.S.-backed). Ended in a stalemate at the 38th parallel.

2. Vietnam War (1955–1975): North Vietnam (USSR-backed) vs. South Vietnam (U.S.-backed). The U.S. withdrew in 1973, and Vietnam unified under communism (1975).

3. Afghanistan War (1979–1989): USSR invaded Afghanistan to support a communist government; U.S. armed Afghan rebels (Mujahideen). The USSR withdrew in 1989, leading to its economic collapse.

4. Space Race (1957–1969)

   1. The Soviet Union launched Sputnik (1957) → First satellite in space.

   2. USA landed on the moon (1969) → Apollo 11, led by Neil Armstrong.

5. Fall of the Soviet Union (1991)

   1. Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms (Glasnost & Perestroika) weakened the USSR.

   2. The collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe (1989–1990).

   3. The USSR dissolved in 1991, ending the Cold War.

Decolonization (1945–1990s):

• The process where European colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East gained independence.

• Caused by:

  • Weakened European powers after WWII.

  • Rise of nationalist movements.

  • Cold War influence (U.S. and USSR encouraged independence).

Key Decolonization Movements:

1. India (1947)

   1. Led by Mahatma Gandhi (nonviolent resistance).

   2. British granted independence but partitioned the region into:

      1. India (Hindu-majority).

      2. Pakistan (Muslim-majority) → led to violent conflicts & mass migrations.

   3. Bangladesh (1971) broke away from Pakistan.

2. Africa (1950s–1970s)

   1. Ghana (1957) → First African country to gain independence (led by Kwame Nkrumah).

   2. Algeria (1962) → Gained independence from France after a bloody war.

   3. Kenya (1963) → Won independence from Britain after the Mau Mau Rebellion.

   4. South Africa (1994) → Apartheid ended, and Nelson Mandela was elected as the first Black president.

3. Middle East

   1. Israel (1948): Established as a Jewish state, leading to Arab-Israeli conflicts.

   2. Egypt (1952): Overthrew British-backed monarchy.

4. Southeast Asia

   1. Vietnam (1954): The French were defeated, leading to the Vietnam War.

   2. Indonesia (1949): Fought against Dutch rule.

   3. Philippines (1946): Gained independence from the U.S.

Impact of Decolonization: 

1. Economic Struggles

   1. Many new nations were poor and dependent on former colonial powers.

   2. Struggled with corruption, dictatorships, and ethnic conflicts.

2. Cold War Influence

   1. Newly independent nations had to choose between U.S. or Soviet support.

   2. Some followed a non-alignment policy (e.g., India, and Egypt).

3. Formation of New Nations

   1. Over 80 new countries emerged from decolonization.

Cold War (1945–1991):

• A period of hostility and geopolitical tension between the United States (capitalist democracy) and the Soviet Union (communist authoritarianism).

• Characterized by an ideological struggle, military alliances, and indirect conflicts (proxy wars) rather than direct warfare.

• The Cold War shaped global politics for over 40 years.

• Ideological conflict, mutual distrust, and Soviet expansion fueled tensions.

• Proxy wars, military alliances, and the nuclear arms race defined the era.

• Decolonization created new nations that became battlegrounds for influence.

• The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991).

Causes of the Cold War:

1. Geological Conflict

   1. United States: Democratic Capitalism

      1. Free-market economy (private ownership, competition).

      2. Political participation (elections, individual freedoms).

      3. Wanted to spread democracy & capitalism globally.

   2. Soviet Union: Authoritarian Communism

      1. State-controlled economy (government ownership of industries).

      2. Wealth is redistributed equally.

      3. No political opposition allowed (one-party rule).

      4. Wanted to spread communism worldwide.

   3. Why was this a problem?

      1. Both ideologies were universalizing → They wanted to spread globally.

      2. The U.S. feared communism would destroy free economies.

      3. U.S.S.R. feared capitalism would threaten communist control.

2. Mutual Mistrust

   1. Yalta Conference (1945):

      1. U.S., U.K., and U.S.S.R. agreed to free elections in Eastern Europe after WWII.

      2. Stalin broke the agreement → Installed communist governments in Eastern Europe (Poland, Hungary, Romania).

      3. The U.S. saw this as a violation of self-determination.

   2. Germany Dispute:

      1. After WWII, Germany was divided into four zones (U.S., U.K., France, U.S.S.R.).

      2. Western Allies (U.S., U.K., France) wanted a united democratic Germany.

      3. Stalin kept East Germany under communist control → Led to the division of Germany.

      4. “Iron Curtain” → Winston Churchill described how Eastern Europe was cut off from the West.

2. Expansion of Soviet Influence

   1. Eastern Europe: Stalin created communist satellite states.

   2. Truman Doctrine (1947): U.S. policy of containing communism.

   3. Marshall Plan (1948): The U.S. provided $13 billion to rebuild Western Europe to prevent communism from spreading.

   4. Berlin Blockade (1948–1949): U.S.S.R. cut off supplies to West Berlin → U.S. responded with the Berlin Airlift.

Effects of the Cold War:

1. Formation of Military Alliances

   1. NATO (1949): U.S.-led alliance to defend against Soviet expansion.

   2. Warsaw Pact (1955): U.S.S.R.’s response → Military alliance of Eastern European communist states.

2. Arms Race & Nuclear Tensions

   1. U.S. & U.S.S.R. built large nuclear arsenals (hydrogen bombs, intercontinental missiles).

   2. Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): If war broke out, both sides would be destroyed.

   3. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Closest moment to nuclear war.

3. Proxy Wars (Indirect Conflicts)

   1. Korean War (1950–1953): North Korea (communist, U.S.S.R.-backed) vs. South Korea (capitalist, U.S.-backed). Ended in a stalemate.

   2. Vietnam War (1955–1975): The U.S. fought to stop communist expansion, but lost.

   3. Afghanistan War (1979–1989): U.S.S.R. invaded Afghanistan → U.S. armed Afghan rebels (Mujahideen). U.S.S.R. withdrew in 1989.

4. Cold War & Decolonization

   1. As colonies gained independence, the U.S. & U.S.S.R. competed for influence.

   2. Non-Aligned Movement (1955): Led by Indonesia, India, Ghana, Egypt.

   3. Countries refused to take sides in the Cold War.

   4. Some played both sides for aid & weapons (e.g., Indonesia took Soviet aid but also opposed communism).

5. Fall of the Soviet Union (1991)

   1. Mikhail Gorbachev (1985): Introduced reforms:

      1. Glasnost (“openness”) → More freedom of speech.

      2. Perestroika (“restructuring”) → Economic reforms.

   2. Communist governments in Eastern Europe collapsed (1989–1990).

   3. U.S.S.R. officially dissolved in 1991, ending the Cold War.

Military Alliances of the Cold War:

• As tensions between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. increased, they formed opposing military alliances.

• These alliances strengthened Cold War divisions and increased global tensions.

1. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1949)

   1. Formed by the U.S. and Western European nations to counter Soviet expansion.

   2. Purpose:

      1. Mutual defense pact → If one member was attacked, all would respond.

      2. Strengthen Western Europe against communism.

   3. Members: U.S., U.K., France, Canada, Italy, West Germany, and others.

   4. Effect: Created a clear divide between the capitalist West and the communist East.

2. Warsaw Pact (1955)

   1. Formed by the U.S.S.R. and its communist allies as a response to NATO.

   2. Purpose:

      1. Strengthen Soviet control over Eastern Europe.

      2. Defend against NATO threats.

   3. Members: Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania.

   4. Effect: Solidified Eastern Europe as the Soviet “buffer zone”.

3. Impact of Military Alliances

   1. Escalated Cold War tensions → The world was now divided into two hostile blocs.

   2. Increased military spending and arms buildup.

   3. Indirect conflicts escalated into full-scale wars (proxy wars).

Nuclear Proliferation (Arms Race) of the Cold War:

• Both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. built nuclear weapons, leading to a dangerous arms race.

• NATO & Warsaw Pact divided the world into two hostile alliances.

• The nuclear arms race increased global fears of destruction.

• Proxy wars turned local conflicts into global battlegrounds for U.S. vs. U.S.S.R. influence.

1. Key Developments

   1. 1945 – The U.S. developed the first atomic bomb (used in Hiroshima & Nagasaki).

   2. 1949 – Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb.

   3. 1952 – U.S. develops the hydrogen bomb (1000x more powerful than the atomic bomb).

   4. 1953 – Soviet Union tests its hydrogen bomb.

   5. 1960s – Both sides have enough nuclear weapons to destroy the world multiple times.

2. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

   1. Cause:

      1. The U.S. tried to overthrow communist leader Fidel Castro (Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961).

      2. The U.S.S.R. placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, 90 miles from the U.S..

   2. U.S. Response:

      1. President John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade to stop Soviet weapons from reaching Cuba.

   3. Outcome:

      1. 13-day standoff → The world feared a nuclear war.

   4. Resolution:

      1. U.S.S.R. removed missiles from Cuba.

      2. The U.S. secretly removed missiles from Turkey.

   5. Effect: Closest the Cold War came to nuclear war.

3. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)

   1. Countries with nuclear weapons agreed not to spread them to non-nuclear nations.

   2. Goal: Prevent nuclear war & limit nuclear expansion.

   3. Effect: Helped reduce nuclear tensions but did not end the arms race.

Proxy Wars (Indirect Conflicts) of the Cold War:

• Instead of fighting directly, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. backed opposing sides in conflicts around the world.

• These wars turned local conflicts into global Cold War battles.

• Communism spread through land reform, economic nationalization, and Cold War rivalries.

1. Korean War (1950–1953)

   1. Background: After WWII, Korea was divided:

   2. North Korea (Communist, Soviet-backed).

   3. South Korea (Capitalist, U.S.-backed).

   4. War Begins:

      1. North Korea invades South Korea (1950) to unify the country under communism.

      2. U.S. & U.N. forces intervene to stop communist expansion.

      3. China & Soviet Union support North Korea.

   5. Outcome:

      1. War ends in stalemate (1953).

      2. Korea remains divided at the 38th parallel.

      3. 3 million people died.

2. Angolan Civil War (1975–2002)

   1. Background: Angola was a former Portuguese colony.

   2. After independence, different ethnic & political groups fought for control.

   3. Cold War involvement:

      1. U.S.S.R. & Cuba supported the MPLA (communist group).

      2. U.S. & South Africa supported UNITA (anti-communist group).

   4. Outcome:

      1. Long civil war (1975–2002).

      2. Communist MPLA remained in power.

3. Contra War in Nicaragua (1979–1990)

   1. Background:

      1. Sandinista National Liberation Front (socialists) overthrew a U.S.-backed dictator in 1979.

   2. Cold War involvement:

      1. U.S.-backed Contra rebels to overthrow the Sandinistas.

      2. The U.S.S.R. supported the Sandinistas.

   3. Outcome:

      1. Brutal war with human rights abuses.

      2. Ceasefire (1990) → Sandinistas lost elections.

Communism in China:

• China’s shift to communism was a major turning point in the Cold War.

• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), led by Mao Zedong, gained power after years of civil war.

• China’s communism differed from the Soviet model, leading to Sino-Soviet tensions.

1. Chinese Civil War (1927–1949)

   1. Before WWII:

      1. The Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT) led by Sun Yat-sen overthrew the Qing Dynasty (1911).

      2. KMT was later led by Chiang Kai-shek, who aligned with the West.

      3. Chinese Communist Party (CCP) formed under Mao Zedong, gaining support from peasants.

   2. During WWII:

      1. China was invaded by Japan (1937–1945).

      2. Nationalists and Communists paused their conflict to fight Japan.

   3. After WWII:

      1. Civil war resumed (1945–1949).

      2. Communists won due to peasant support & Soviet aid.

      3. 1949: Mao Zedong declared the People’s Republic of China (PRC).

2. Communist Reforms Under Mao

   1. Agricultural Collectivization (1950s):

      1. Land was redistributed to peasants.

      2. Unlike in the Soviet Union, this was less violent because of peasant loyalty to the CCP.

   2. The Great Leap Forward (1958–1962):

      1. Goal: Rapid industrialization & rural industrial production.

      2. Small-scale rural industries were built instead of urban factories.

      3. Result: Poor-quality goods + agricultural failures → Massive famine (20–50 million deaths).

      4. Mao refused foreign aid and continued exporting food, worsening the crisis.

3. Sino-Soviet Split

   1. Tensions between China & U.S.S.R. grew because Mao criticized Soviet Communism.

   2. Differences:

      1. Soviet Union (Stalin): Focused on the urban industry.

      2. China (Mao): Focused on rural collectivization.

   3. By the 1960s, China and the Soviet Union became rivals instead of allies.

Communism in Africa: The Case of Egypt:

• Communism and socialism spread in Africa through land reform and nationalization.

• Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal led to conflict with Western powers.

1. The Suez Canal Crisis (1956)

   1. Background:

      1. Built in 1869 by Britain & France.

      2. Shortcut for trade between Europe & Asia (vital for European economies).

   2. Egypt’s Independence (1952):

      1. Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew British rule and became the leader of Egypt.

      2. Introduced socialist policies (land redistribution, nationalized industries).

   3. Nationalization of the Suez Canal (1956):

      1. Nasser took full control of the canal, angering Britain & France.

   4. Response:

      1. Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt.

      2. U.S.S.R. threatened nuclear strikes on the invaders.

      3. The U.S. pressured Britain & France to withdraw.

   5. Result:

      1. Nasser remained in power and became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.

Communism in Asia - Vietnam:

• Vietnam became another battleground for Cold War ideology.

• Vietnam’s land redistribution strengthened support for the communist North.

1. Vietnam’s Struggle for Independence

   1. Colonial Rule:

      1. Vietnam was a French colony.

   2. WWII Impact:

      1. Japan occupied Vietnam.

      2. After Japan’s defeat (1945), Vietnam declared independence.

   3. Division of Vietnam (1954):

      1. North Vietnam: Communist, led by Ho Chi Minh.

      2. South Vietnam: Anti-communist, backed by U.S..

   4. Land Redistribution in North Vietnam:

      1. Wealthy landowners lost their land.

      2. Peasants gained farmland.

      3. Strengthened support for communism.

Communism in Latin America - Cuba:

• Communism spread to the Western Hemisphere through revolutions.

• Cuba’s shift to communism led to direct U.S. intervention.

1. Cuban Revolution (1959)

   1. Background:

      1. The U.S. dominated Cuba’s economy.

      2. Wealthy Cubans and U.S. corporations controlled land and industries.

   2. Fidel Castro’s Rise to Power:

      1. 1956: Castro led a revolution, overthrowing U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista.

      2. Established a communist government (1959).

      3. Supported by the Soviet Union.

   3. Reforms Under Castro:

      1. Land Redistribution:

         1. Took land from wealthy Cubans and U.S. corporations.

         2. Increased wages for workers.

         3. 15% of Cuba’s wealth was redistributed to the poor.

      2. Nationalization of U.S. businesses:

         1. The U.S. responded with economic sanctions.

         2. Led Cuba to develop closer ties with the Soviet Union.

2. U.S. Response to Communism in Cuba

   1. Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961):

      1. CIA-backed operation to overthrow Castro.

      2. Failed, making Castro more committed to communism.

   2. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):

      1. The U.S.S.R. placed nuclear missiles in Cuba.

      2. U.S. blockaded Cuba.

      3. Resolved diplomatically, avoiding nuclear war.

Decolonization (1945–1990s):

• Decolonization: The process by which former colonies gained independence from European powers.

• Decolonization occurred through both peaceful negotiations & violent struggles.

• Decolonization led to partition, conflicts, and economic struggles.

• Two main ways colonies gained independence:

  • Negotiated Independence (peaceful process).

  • Armed Struggle (violent process).

Negotiated Independence:

• Some nations gained independence through diplomatic negotiations rather than war.

• India & Ghana gained independence through diplomacy, while Algeria & Angola fought wars.

1. India (1947)

   1. Background:

      1. Britain’s most valuable colony → heavily invested in railroads, ports, cities.

      2. British infrastructure benefited the empire, not India.

   2. Rise of Indian Nationalism:

      1. Indian National Congress (1885): Demanded more political rights.

   3. World War I:

      1. Indians fought for Britain, hoping for self-rule.

      2. Denied independence, leading to discontent.

      3. Amritsar Massacre (1919): British troops killed hundreds of peaceful protesters.

   4. Gandhi & Nonviolent Resistance:

      1. Mohandas Gandhi led a nonviolent resistance movement.

      2. Salt March (1930): Protested British salt monopoly.

   5. World War II & Independence:

      1. Britain forced millions of Indians into war → growing demands for independence.

      2. Britain was weakened after WWII and granted India independence in 1947.

   6. Partition of India (1947):

      1. Hindus → India, Muslims → Pakistan.

      2. Mass migration & violence → Over 1 million deaths.

2. Ghana (1957)

   1. Background:

      1. Ghana (formerly Gold Coast) was a British colony.

   2. Kwame Nkrumah & Independence Movement:

      1. Led peaceful protests & negotiations with Britain.

      2. Ghana gained independence in 1957 (first African nation to do so).

Armed Struggle for Independence:

• Colonies with large European settler populations often resisted independence, leading to violent conflicts.

• European-drawn colonial borders led to ethnic conflicts & civil wars.

1. Algeria (1954–1962)

   1. Background:

      1. Algeria was a French colony.

      2. Unlike other colonies (Morocco & Tunisia), France refused to give Algeria independence.

      3. Why? Large population of French settlers in Algeria.

   2. Algerian War for Independence (1954–1962):

      1. The National Liberation Front (FLN) launched attacks against French troops & civilians.

      2. French military responded with extreme brutality (torture, mass killings).

   3. Outcome:

      1. French President Charles de Gaulle agreed to negotiate.

      2. Algeria gained independence in 1962.

      3. Over 1 million deaths.

2. Angola (1950s–1975)

   1. Background:

      1. Angola was a Portuguese colony.

      2. Three rival political groups fought for independence.

   2. Independence War (1961–1975):

      1. Portuguese brutally suppressed protests.

      2. 1974: Portugal’s government collapsed, leading to negotiations.

      3. 1975: Angola gained independence.

   3. Civil War After Independence:

      1.  Rival groups fought for power.

      2. Became a Cold War proxy war (U.S. & U.S.S.R. backed different factions).

The Problem of Colonial Boundaries:

• Colonial borders ignored ethnic, religious, and cultural differences.

• After independence, this caused civil wars & ethnic conflicts.

• Example: Nigeria

1. Nigeria’s Independence & Civil War (1960–1970)

   1. Background:

      1. Nigeria was a British colony.

      2. Ethnically diverse (Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa-Fulani).

   2. Civil War (1967–1970):

      1. Igbo people (Christian, Westernized) tried to form their own country (Biafra).

      2. The Northern government (Muslim, Hausa-Fulani) fought to keep Nigeria united.

      3. War resulted in famine & mass deaths.

   3. Outcome: Nigeria remained united but deeply divided.

1. Post-Decolonization: Challenges & Effects (1945–1990s

   1.  Decolonization created over 80 new states.

   2. Many new nations faced conflicts, economic struggles, and migration.

   3. Some kept their colonial borders, while others redrew them, often leading to ethnic and political tensions.

The Partition of India (1947):

• India’s independence was negotiated, but its partition caused mass violence.

• New states:

  • India (Hindu majority).

  • Pakistan (Muslim majority).

1. Why Partition Happened

   1. The British & Gandhi wanted a united India, but Muslims feared Hindu domination.

   2. The Muslim League pushed for a separate state (Pakistan).

2. Partition & Violence

   1. Millions were forced to migrate:

      1. Muslims moved to Pakistan, Hindus moved to India.

      2. Over 12 million people were displaced.

      3. Mass violence erupted → 500,000+ deaths.

   2. Long-term Conflict: Kashmir

      1. Kashmir had a Muslim majority but was ruled by a Hindu leader.

      2. Pakistan & India fought over it.

      3. U.N. intervention failed → Kashmir remains disputed today.

The Partition of Palestine & the Creation of Israel (1948):

• After WWII, Britain controlled Palestine but faced pressure from Zionist Jews & Arab Muslims.

1. Background

   1. Zionism (Jewish nationalism): Jews wanted a homeland in Palestine (Israel).

   2. British Balfour Declaration (1917): Promised a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

   3. Arab Muslims resisted Jewish migration.

   4. Holocaust (WWII) increased Jewish migration to Palestine.

2. U.N. Partition Plan (1947)

   1. U.N. divided Palestine into two states:

      1. Jewish state (Israel).

      2. Arab state (Palestine).

   2. Jewish leaders accepted; Arabs rejected it.

   3. 1948: Jews declared Israel’s independence → Arabs attacked.

   4. Israel won the war, but conflict continues today.

Economic Development in Newly Independent States:

• Governments took direct control over their economies after independence.

• Some new states succeeded in economic development, while others struggled.

1. Egypt Under Gamal Abdel Nasser

   1. Led the Non-Aligned Movement (played U.S. & U.S.S.R. against each other for aid).

   2. Nationalized the Suez Canal (1956) → Gained Soviet support.

   3. Built the Aswan High Dam (1970) → Provided electricity & irrigation.

   4. Implemented social welfare reforms (free schooling & healthcare).

2. India Under Indira Gandhi (1966–1984)

   1. Economic Crisis (Pakistan conflict + famine).

   2. Five-Year Plans: Government controlled industries to reduce reliance on the West.

   3. Green Revolution:

      1. Used science to increase crop yields.

      2. Made India self-sufficient in agriculture.

      3. Nationalized banks & regulated industries.

Migration After Decolonization:

• Former colonies migrated to their former imperial powers (metropoles).

• Mass migration reshaped global demographics.

1. Why Did People Migrate?

   1. Economic hardship in newly independent nations.

   2. Familiarity with imperial culture & language.

2. Major Migration Patterns

   1. South Asians → Britain.

   2. Algerians → France.

   3. Filipinos → U.S.

3. Impact of Migration

   1. Transformed Western nations into multi-ethnic societies.

   2. Maintained cultural & economic ties between former colonies & imperial states.

Responses to Conflict (1900–Present):

• The 20th century was filled with conflicts (wars, revolutions, independence struggles, ideological rivalries).

• Responses varied: Some nonviolent, others violent and destructive.

Nonviolent Resistance:

• Some leaders used civil disobedience & peaceful protests to achieve political change.

• Examples: Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela.

• Nonviolent resistance (Gandhi, King, Mandela) led to political & social change.

1. Mohandas Gandhi (India)

   1. Leader of the Indian independence movement.

   2. Used nonviolent resistance against British rule.

   3. Key Acts of Civil Disobedience:

      1. Homespun Movement:

      2. Boycotted British textiles.

      3. Encouraged Indians to weave their own clothes.

   4. Salt March (1930):

      1. Protested British salt monopoly by illegally collecting salt.

      2. Gandhi was arrested but inspired mass protests.

   5. Impact:

      1. Weakened British control.

      2. Helped achieve Indian independence (1947).

2. Martin Luther King Jr. (United States)

   1. Leader of the Civil Rights Movement against racial segregation.

   2. Inspired by Gandhi’s nonviolence.

   3. Key Acts of Civil Disobedience:

      1. Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956):

         1. Protested segregation on buses.

         2. Led to the Supreme Court ruling against segregation.

      2. March on Washington (1963):

         1. Gave “I Have a Dream” speech.

   4. Impact:

      1. Civil Rights Act (1964) & Voting Rights Act (1965) ended racial discrimination.

3. Nelson Mandela (South Africa)

   1. Led resistance against apartheid (legalized racial segregation).

   2. Started with nonviolent protests (boycotts, strikes).

   3. Shifted to armed resistance after the Sharpeville Massacre (1960).

   4. Jailed for 27 years for fighting apartheid.

   5. Impact:

      1. Became South Africa’s first Black president (1994).

      2. Ended apartheid.

Violent Responses to Conflict:

• Many leaders used military force, dictatorships, and ethnic violence to maintain power.

• Examples: Augusto Pinochet, Idi Amin, Military-Industrial Complex.

• Violent responses (dictatorships, war, terrorism) caused suffering & instability.

1. Augusto Pinochet (Chile)

   1. Led a military coup (1973) to overthrow Marxist president Salvador Allende.

   2. Backed by the U.S. (Cold War context).

   3. Impact:

      1. Ruled as a dictator.

      2. Suppressed opposition (torture, executions, censorship).

2. Idi Amin (Uganda)

   1. Seized power in Uganda (1971) through a military coup.

   2. Ethnic cleansing & political repression.

   3. Expelled South Asians (blamed them for economic issues).

   4. Impact:

      1. Nicknamed the “Butcher of Uganda”.

      2. Killed 80,000 to 500,000 people.

3. Military-Industrial Complex

   1. Fear & economic pressure led to massive arms production.

   2. U.S. & U.S.S.R. built up nuclear stockpiles.

   3. Weapons industry became deeply tied to economic stability.

   4. Impact:

      1. Wars fueled by profit motives.

      2. Encouraged global conflict instead of peace.

Terrorism as a Response to Conflict:

• Terrorism = Using violence against civilians to achieve political goals.

• Example: Al-Qaeda.

• The military-industrial complex kept global conflicts alive for profit.

1. Al-Qaeda & Osama bin Laden

   1. Islamic extremist group opposed to U.S. influence in the Middle East.

   2. Carried out attacks to pressure the U.S. to withdraw from the region.

   3. Most infamous attack: 9/11 (2001) → Killed 2,000+ Americans.

   4. Impact:

      1. Led to U.S. military interventions in Afghanistan & Iraq.

The End of the Cold War (1991):

• The Cold War (1947–1991) ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union.

• Three main causes:

  • U.S. military & technological advancements.

  • Soviet failure in Afghanistan.

  • Reforms by Mikhail Gorbachev.

U.S. Military & Technological Advancements:

• Both superpowers built up nuclear weapons (by 1980s: 12,000+ nuclear missiles).

• Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD): Neither side attacked due to fear of total destruction.

• 1970s Détente (reduced tensions):

  • SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, 1972) → Limited nuclear weapon production.

  • 1980s: Shift in U.S. Policy

  • Reagan rejected détente & took a hard stance against the USSR.

• Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or “Star Wars” (1983):

  • Proposed space-based missile defense system.

  • The Soviets struggled to keep up due to economic decline.

  • U.S. military spending & tech (SDI) weakened the Soviet economy.

Soviet Failure in Afghanistan (1979–1989):

• The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support its Communist government.

• Faced guerrilla resistance from Afghan rebels (Mujahideen), backed by:

  • United States (Cold War proxy war).

  • Saudi Arabia & Pakistan.

• War lasted 9 years → Drained Soviet resources & morale.

• Failed occupation accelerated Soviet economic & political decline.

Gorbachev’s Reforms & Soviet Collapse:

• Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet leader (1985).

• Introduced reforms to fix economic & political problems.

• Soviet defeat in Afghanistan drained resources.

• Gorbachev’s reforms unintentionally led to Soviet collapse.

1. Perestroika (“Restructuring”)

   1. Reformed Soviet economy by reducing central government control.

   2. Allowed limited market economy & private businesses.

2. Glasnost (“Openness”)

   1. Increased political freedom (free speech, criticism of government).

   2. Exposed government corruption & inefficiency.

3. End of Soviet Military Intervention

   1. Gorbachev announced the USSR would no longer use military force to support Communist regimes.

   2. Effect:

      1. Eastern European countries (e.g., Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia) revolted against Soviet rule.

      2. Berlin Wall fell (1989) → Germany reunified.

      3. Soviet republics (Lithuania, Georgia, etc.) declared independence.

Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991):

• Soviet republics declared independence one by one.

• 1991: Soviet legislature voted to dissolve the USSR, ending with the fall of the Soviet Union.

Essential Questions:

1. What was the historical context of the Cold War after 1945?

• The Cold War emerged after World War II as a global ideological and geopolitical conflict between the United States (capitalist democracy) and the Soviet Union (communist authoritarianism). 

• Both sought to expand their influence, leading to tensions, proxy wars, military alliances (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact), and nuclear proliferation.

2. What were the causes and effects of the ideological struggle of the Cold War?

• Causes:

  • Conflicting ideologies (capitalism vs. communism).

  • The U.S.S.R.’s expansion into Eastern Europe.

  • Mutual distrust between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.

  • The U.S. containment policy (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan).

• Effects:

  • Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

  • Proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan).

  • The arms race and nuclear proliferation.

  • Collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, ending the Cold War.
    

3. How did the ways the United States sought to maintain influence over the course of the Cold War compare to those of the Soviet Union?

• United States:

  • Containment policy (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan).

  • Formed military alliances (NATO).

  • Supported anti-communist regimes in proxy wars.

  • Promoted economic aid to non-communist countries.

• Soviet Union:

  • Expanded communism in Eastern Europe.

  • Formed the Warsaw Pact.

  • Supported communist revolutions and regimes (China, Vietnam, Cuba).

  • Engaged in military interventions (Afghanistan, Hungary).

4. What were the causes and consequences of the adoption of communism in China and other parts of the world?

• Causes:

  • Economic struggles and dissatisfaction with previous governments.

  • Support from the Soviet Union.

  • Appeal of land reforms to peasants.

• Consequences:

  • The Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) led to mass famine.

  • The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) created political chaos.

  • Cold War tensions increased (e.g., Korean War, Vietnam War).

  • The Sino-Soviet Split weakened the communist bloc.

5. What were the processes by which various peoples pursued independence after 1900?

• Negotiated Independence: Some nations, like India (1947) and Ghana (1957), gained independence through diplomacy.

• Armed Struggle: Others, like Algeria (1962) and Angola (1975), fought violent wars for independence.

6. How did political changes in the period from 1900 to the present lead to territorial, demographic, and nationalist developments?

• Decolonization led to new nation-states, redrawing global borders.

• Partitioning (e.g., India-Pakistan, Israel-Palestine) caused mass migrations and ethnic violence.

• Nationalist movements strengthened identities and independence efforts.

7. How did economic changes and continuities result from the process of decolonization?

• Changes:

  • Newly independent nations struggled with economic instability.

  • Some adopted socialist policies (e.g., Nasser’s nationalization in Egypt).

  • Others relied on foreign aid and loans from former colonial powers.

• Continuities:

  • Economic dependence on former colonial rulers.

  • Unequal global economic structures remained.

8. What were the various reactions to existing power struggles in the period after 1900?

• Nonviolent Resistance: Gandhi in India, MLK in the U.S., and Mandela in South Africa used peaceful protests to achieve political change.

• Violent Reactions: Military coups (e.g., Pinochet in Chile, Amin in Uganda), ethnic cleansing, and terrorism (e.g., Al-Qaeda).

9. What were the causes of the end of the Cold War?

• Economic decline in the Soviet Union.

• Failed Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979–1989).

• Gorbachev’s reforms (Glasnost and Perestroika).

• Collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe (1989).

• The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Key Terms:

• United Nations: International organization founded in 1945 to maintain global peace and security.

• World Bank: Financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for economic development.

• Marshall Plan: U.S. economic aid program (1948–1952) to rebuild Western Europe and prevent communism.

• European Economic Community: Economic organization that promoted European integration, later evolved into the EU.

• Iron Curtain: Metaphor for the division between communist Eastern Europe and democratic Western Europe.

• Cold War: Ideological and geopolitical conflict between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. (1945–1991).

• NATO: Military alliance of Western nations led by the U.S. to counter Soviet expansion.

• Warsaw Pact: Soviet-led military alliance of communist nations in Eastern Europe.

• Nonaligned Nations: Countries that did not take sides in the Cold War (e.g., India, Egypt).

• Third World: Term used for developing countries, often caught between U.S. and Soviet influence.

• Korean War: Proxy war (1950–1953) between communist North Korea (Soviet-backed) and capitalist South Korea (U.S.-backed).

• Vietnam War: Proxy war (1955–1975) between communist North Vietnam (Soviet-backed) and anti-communist South Vietnam (U.S.-backed).

• Proxy Wars: Conflicts in which the U.S. and U.S.S.R. supported opposing sides instead of directly fighting each other.

• Sandinistas: Socialist revolutionaries who took control of Nicaragua in 1979, opposed by U.S.-backed Contras.

• Cuban Missile Crisis: U.S.-Soviet confrontation in 1962 over Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba.

• Helsinki Accords: 1975 agreement to improve relations between Eastern and Western Europe.

• Cultural Revolution: Mao Zedong’s radical campaign (1966–1976) to purge capitalist elements in China.

• Blaise Diagne: Senegalese leader who pushed for African political rights under French rule.

• African National Congress: South African political party that opposed apartheid, led by Nelson Mandela.

• Haile Selassie: Ethiopian emperor who resisted Italian invasion and modernized Ethiopia.

• Indian National Congress: Political party that led India’s independence movement.

• Bengal: Region in India that was divided during the 1947 partition, leading to mass migration.

• All-India Muslim League: Organization that advocated for the creation of Pakistan.

• Mohandas K. Gandhi: Leader of India’s nonviolent independence movement.

• Jawaharlal Nehru: India’s first prime minister, promoted nonalignment and industrialization.

• OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, controlled global oil supply.

• Muhammad Ali Jinnah: Leader of the Muslim League, first leader of Pakistan.

• Lázaro Cárdenas: Mexican president (1934–1940) who nationalized the oil industry.

• Hipólito Irigoyen: Argentine president who expanded social programs for workers.

• Getúlio Vargas: Brazilian leader who implemented economic reforms and nationalism.

• Juan Perón: Argentine leader known for his populist policies.

• Eva Duarte Perón: First Lady of Argentina, popular among the working class.

• Salvador Allende: Marxist president of Chile, overthrown in a U.S.-backed coup (1973).

• Dirty War: Period of military dictatorship in Argentina (1976–1983) that suppressed opposition.

• Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: Led the 1979 Iranian Revolution, establishing an Islamic Republic.

• Saddam Hussein: Iraqi dictator (1979–2003), involved in the Iran-Iraq War and Persian Gulf War.

• Mikhail Gorbachev: Soviet leader who introduced reforms (Glasnost and Perestroika), leading to the collapse of the U.S.S.R.

• Perestroika: Economic restructuring policy in the Soviet Union.

• Solidarity: Polish labor movement that challenged communist rule.

• Ethnic Cleansing: The forced removal or genocide of an ethnic group, seen in the Balkans and Rwanda.