Test 3

Modules

figure-ground perception

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

ex of reversible figure & ground

optical illusions - goblet vs. two faces

gestalt

a meaning pattern/configuration, forming a “whole” that is more than the sum of its parts

three principles of grouping

proximity, continuity, closure

proximity

we group nearby objects together

example of proximity

we see three columns rather than seeing 6 individual lines

continuity

we perceive smooth, continuing patterns rather than discontinuous ones

example of continuity

we see two continuous lines (one curvy, one straight) instead of seeing a series of alternating semicircles

closure

we fill in gaps to see a complete, whole object

example of closure

we assume that the circles on the le are complete but partially blocked by the (illusory) triangle

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

test of depth perception;

a model of a cliff with a “drop-off ” area that was actually covered by sturdy glass. They placed 6- to 14- month-old infants on the edge of the “cliff” and had one of the parents coax the infants to lean over the glass or crawl out onto it Most infants refused to do so, indicating that they could perceive depth.

binocular clues

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth;

humans have two eyes in front of our head. the two eyes have slightly different views - the more different the views are, the closer the object must be

_______ _______ is used in 3d movies to create the illusion of depth, as each eye gets a different view of “close” objects

retinal disparity

how do we perceive depth from a 2D image?

by using monocular (only needing one eye) cues

monocular cues

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

examples of monocular cues

relative height, relative size, relative motion, linear perspective, interposition

interposition

when one object appears to block the view of another, we assume taht the blocking object is in a position between our eyes and the blocked object

this picture is an example of the monocular cue

interposition; the left deer is in front of the right deer

relative size

if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people interpret the smaller object as the one that is farther away

this picture is an example of the monocular cue

relative size; the smaller flowers are farther away

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to meet in the distance; the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance

this picture is an example of the monocular cue

linear perspective, the two lines of the road seem to meet in the distance

relative height

we tend to perceive the higher part of a scene as farther away

this picture is an example of which monocular cue

relative height;

this scene can look like layers of buildings, with the highest part of the picture as the sky

perceptual constancy

our ability to see objects as appearing the same even under different lighting conditions, at different distances and angles

perceptual constancy is a

top-down process

examples of perceptual constancy

color and brightness constancy, shape and size constancy

relative luminance

the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings

the squares A and B are exactly the same shade of gray.

why does B look lighter?

comparisons (context) control our perceptions!

shape constancy

the ability to perceive objects as having a constant shape despite receiving different sensory images

_____________ ________________ helps us see the door as a rectangle as it opens. because of this, we may think the red shapes on screen are also rectangles

shape constancy

visual interpretation: restored vision, sensory restriction

Experience shapes our visual perception. 

what does “experience shapes our visual perception” mean?

we must practice our perception skills during a critical period of development, or these skills may not develop

perceptual adaptation

After our sensory information is distorted, such as by a new pair of glasses or by delayed audio on a television, humans may at first be disoriented but can learn to adjust and function

This man could learn eventually to fly an airplane wearing these unusual goggles, but here, at first, he is disoriented by having his world turned upside down

this is an example of

perceptual adaptation

hearing in psychology

• how do we take a sensation based on sound waves and turn it into perceptions of music, people, and actions?

  • hype music when working out, sad music when depressed

• how do we distinguish among thousands of pitches and voices?

the _________ of a soundwave determines the wave’s ________

frequency; pitch

a soundwave with short wavelength has ________ frequency, creating high-pitch sounds

high

a soundwave with long wavelengths has ___ frequency, creating low-pitched sounds

low

Waves vary in ___________ (the distance between successive peaks).

wavelength

_________________ the number of complete wavelengths that can pass a point in a given time, depends on the wavelength

frequency

The shorter the wavelength, the __________ the frequency.

higher

wavelength determines the ____ of sound

pitch

a soundwave’s amplitude corresponds to our perception of ________

volume

a soundwave with high amplitude has ________ volume

loud

a soundwave with low amplitude has ______ volume

quiet

how sound waves reach the ear

1. The outer ear funnels sound waves to the eardrum.

2. The bones of the middle ear amplify and relay the eardrum’s vibrations through the oval window into the fluid-filled cochlea.

3. The cochlear fluid’s resulting pressure changes cause the basilar membrane to ripple, bending the hair cells on its surface.

4. Hair cell movements trigger impulses at the nerve cells’ base, whose fibers converge to form the auditory nerve.

5. That nerve sends neural messages to the thalamus and on to the auditory cortex.

conduction hearing loss

when the middle ear isn’t conducting sound well to the cochlea

sensorineural hearing loss

when the receptor cells aren’t sending messages through the auditory nerves

causes of hearing loss

preventing hearing loss

• exposure to sounds that are too loud to talk over can cause damage to the inner ear, especially the hair cells

• structures of the middle and inner ear can also be damaged by disease

prevention methods include:

• limiting exposure to noises over 85 decibels

• treating ear infections

interaural timing differences

sounds usually reach one of our ears sooner and with more clarity than they reach the other ear

interaural intensity

refers to the fact that a sound coming from the right side of your body is more intense at your right ear than at your left ear, and vice versa for sounds from the left, because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through your head.

true or false: people who lose all hearing in one ear often have a hard time locating sounds

true

associative learning - behaviorism

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s dogs): learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction

• Something outside of us that we associate with 

Operant Conditioning (Skinner): changing behavior choices in response to consequences

• Changing behavior (behavior modification) in the world

classical conditioning

a type of associative learning - behaviorism

Pavlov’s dogs - learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction

• something outside of us that we associate with

operant conditioning

a type of associative learning - behaviorism

Skinner - changing behavior choices in response to consequences

• changing behavior (behavior modification) in the world

cognitive learning

acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience

how classical conditioning works

Process: after repeated exposure to two stimuli occurring in sequence, we associate those stimuli with each other

Result: our natural response to one stimulus can now be triggered by the new, predictive stimulus

example of classical conditioning

stimulus 1: hear thunder —> response: cover ears to avoid sound

after repetition

stimulus 2: see lightning —> response: cover ears to avoid sound

here, our response to thunder becomes associated with lightning

example of operative conditioning

• child associates his “response” (behavior) with consequences

• child learns to repeat behaviors (saying “please”) which were followed by desirable results (cookie)

• child learns to avoir behaviors (yelling “gimme!”) which were followed by undesirable results (scolding or loss of dessert)

cognitive learning

refers to acquiring new behaviors and information mentally, rather than by direct experience

cognitive learning occurs by:

1) observing events and the behavior of others

2) using language to acquire information about events experienced by others

Before classical conditioning —> a neutral response to a neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that does not trigger a response

ex. a dog hears bell ring but has no response

—> Neutral Stimulus (NS) = bell ringing

—> Neutral Response (NR) = dog has no response

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus which triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning

ex.

unconditioned stimulus (US) = yummy dog food

unconditioned response (UR) = dog salivates

during classical conditioning

the bell (NS) is repeatedly presented with the food (US)

1. NS = ring the bell

2. US = present the food

3. UR = dog salivates

after classical conditioning

the dog begins to salivate after hearing the bell ring

—> the NS becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Conditioned (formerly neutral) Stimulus = bell rings

Conditioned Response = dog salivates

the UR and the CR are the same response, triggered by different events - the difference is

whether conditioning was necessary for the response to happen

the NS and the CS are the same stimulus - the difference is

whether the stimulus triggers the conditioned response

Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR

Your romantic partner always uses the same shampoo. soon, the smell of that shampoo makes you feel happy

US = romantic partner

UR = feeling happy

NS = the shampoo smell

CS = the shampoo smell

CR = feeling happy

Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR

the door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks

US = you coming home

UR = dog wagging tail

NS = door squeaking

CS = door squeaking

CR = dog wagging its tail

Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR

the nurse says, “this won’t hurt a bit” just before stabbing you with a needle. the next time you hear “this won’t hurt”, you cringe in fear

US = getting stabbed by needle

UR = cringing in fear

NS = hearing “this won’t hurt a bit”

CS = hearing “this won’t hurt a bit”

CR = cringing in fear

Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR

You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated

US = bad food

UR = nausea

NS = restaurant

CS = seeing restaurant

CR = nausea

generalization

the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli

MORE stuff makes you drool

ex of generalization

Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool when rubbed; they then also drooled when scratched

discrimination

the ability to only respond to a specific stimuli, preventing generalization

LESS stuff makes you drool

ex of discrimination

Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool at bells of a certain pitch; slightly different pitches did not trigger drooling

operant conditioning

involves adjusting to the consequences of our behaviors

how operant conditioning works:

an act of chosen behavior (a “response”) is followed by a reward or punitive feedback from the environment

result: reinforced behavior is more likely to be tried again

ex. of operant conditioning

• we may smile more at work after this repeatedly gets us bigger tips

• we learn how to ride a bike using the strategies that don’t make us crash

Skinner: the Operant Chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

feedback from the environment that makes behavior more likely to be done again

positive (+) reinforcement

the reward is adding something desirable

example of positive reinforcement

getting a cupcake after putting on seat belt

negative (-) reinforcement

the reward is ending something unpleasant

• key words: “until” or “as soon as”

ex of negative reinforcement

car beeps annoyingly until you put the seatbelt on

punishments

have the opposite effects of reinforcement. these consequences make the target behavior less likely to occur in the future

positive (+) punishment

you ADD something unpleasant/aversive

ex of positive punishment

spanking child

negative (-) punishment

you take away something pleasant/desired

ex of negative punishment

taking teenager’s phone away

“you’re playing video games instead of practicing the piano, so i am justified in yelling at you” is an example of

positive punishment (parents are giving something bad)

“you’re avoiding practicing, so I’m turning off your game” is an example of

negative punishment (parents are taking away something good)

“i will stop staring at you as soon as i see that you are practicing” is an example of

negative reinforcement (parents are TAKING AWAY something BAD)

“after you practice, we’ll play a game!” is an example of

positive reinforcement (parents are GIVING something GOOD)

reinforcement vs. punishment:

police pulling drivers over and giving prizes for buckling up

positive reinforcement

reinforcement vs. punishment:

suspending a basketball player for committing a flagrant foul

negative punishment

reinforcement vs. punishment:

a soccer player rolls her eyes at a teammate who delivered a bad pass

positive punishment

reinforcement vs. punishment:

a child snaps her fingers until her teacher calls on her

negative reinforcement