Traditional Chinese Society – Key Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards covering major terms and concepts from the lecture on traditional Chinese society.

Emperor (Chinese)

Supreme ruler of China who commanded the army, made laws and treaties, led religious rites, and was viewed as holding power through the Mandate of Heaven.

Forbidden City

Walled palace complex in Beijing where the emperor lived in seclusion, attended by servants, advisers, and eunuchs.

Mandate of Heaven

Ancient Chinese belief that heaven granted emperors the right to rule based on their ability to govern well and fairly.

Kow Tow

Ceremonial act of kneeling and touching one’s head to the floor three times, repeated three times, to show absolute respect and submission to the emperor.

Envoy

A diplomat sent as an ambassador to a foreign court; nineteenth-century European envoys were expected to perform the kow tow before the emperor.

Confucianism

Philosophy emphasizing social harmony, family duty, respect for hierarchy, and acceptance of one’s place in society.

Four Occupations

Traditional social ranking of scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants based on perceived value to the state.

Scholars

Educated ruling class drawn from landowning families; responsible for administration and governance.

Farmers

Essential producers of food, considered the economic foundation of Chinese society despite heavy taxation.

Artisans and Tradesmen

Craftspeople who transformed raw materials into useful or beautiful goods and tools, admired for their skills.

Merchants

Lowest social class because they were seen as profiting from the labor of others rather than creating new value.

Peasant

Poor rural farmer working small plots (often under one hectare) and bearing the bulk of taxation in traditional China.

Village Headman

Locally chosen leader responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining order, and managing markets in rural villages.

Mandarins

Elite scholar-officials who obtained government posts by passing imperial examinations and formed a conservative, powerful bureaucracy.

Imperial Examination System

Rigorous series of tests on classical texts and calligraphy through which male candidates qualified for official posts.

Pa-ku Wen (Eight-Legged Essay)

Structured literary composition required in imperial exams, prized for concise style and calligraphic beauty.

Daoist Priesthood

Religious body headed by the emperor, who officially presided over Daoist ceremonies and clergy.

Eunuch

Castrated male employed within the palace to serve the emperor; could hold influential administrative and supervisory roles.

Castration

Surgical removal of the testicles; performed on boys entering eunuch service to prevent forming a rival lineage.

Lineage

Line of descendants within a family; eunuchs lacked personal lineage, reducing threats to imperial succession.

Qing Dynasty

Manchu-led imperial dynasty (1644–1912) under which emperors like Qianlong expanded territory and wealth.

Emperor Qianlong

Qing ruler (1736–1795) noted for military skill, cultural patronage, and maintaining absolute authority.

Industrial Revolution (Chinese Context)

Global industrial changes that had little immediate impact on 19th-century Chinese agriculture, which remained labor-intensive.

Salt and Tea Tax

Heavy levies imposed on essential commodities that increased the fiscal burden on China’s populace.

Erosion

Environmental degradation from deforestation and over-cultivation that harmed Chinese farmlands by the late 19th century.

Head of Government (Emperor’s Role)

Position through which the emperor commanded armies, enacted laws, granted pardons, and oversaw exams.

Manchu

Ethnic group from northeast Asia that founded the Qing dynasty and occupied many top military and court positions.

Daoism

Chinese philosophical and religious tradition emphasizing harmony with the Dao (Way); ceremonies were led by the emperor.

Over-taxation

Chronic fiscal pressure on peasants through land, salt, and commodity taxes, funding most of the imperial revenue.

Conservatism (Mandarin Class)

Resistance to reform fostered by traditional education and sustained social privilege among scholar-officials.