Jewish History Lecture Notes

Flashcards about Jewish Politics After 1881 May Laws, Diaspora Nationalism & Immigration, Modern Judeophobia / Antisemitism, Ottoman Jewry, World War I, Europe, and the Middle East, North American Jewry’s Ascendancy & the Founding of Israel, Modern Antisemitism (Nazi Era – ), The Destruction of the European Heartland (The Holocaust – )

May Laws of 1882

Laws passed by the Russian government restricting Jews from living in rural areas and owning property, leading to mass Jewish emigration and political organizing.

Leon Pinsker

Originally a physician who believed in assimilation, became convinced after the pogroms that antisemitism was permanent and irrational, like a disease (“Judeophobia”).

Autoemancipation

Pinsker argued that Jews could not rely on others for liberation; they must emancipate themselves by building a national homeland.

Theodor Herzl

A Viennese journalist who covered the Dreyfus Affair and proposed a sovereign Jewish state, ideally in Palestine, as the only solution to antisemitism.

Der Judenstaat

Herzl proposed a sovereign Jewish state, ideally in Palestine, as the only solution to antisemitism.

Pauline Wengeroff

An Orthodox Jewish woman who chronicled the erosion of traditional Jewish life in Eastern Europe due to modernization, Russification, and the Haskalah.

Protestrabbiner

Rabbis in Germany who publicly protested against rising antisemitism in the late 19th century, blending religious authority and modern political activism.

Civic nationalism vs. Ethnic/integral nationalism

A form of nationalism where membership is based on adherence to shared political values and laws, theoretically inclusive, as seen in France and the U.S.
VS
A form of nationalism that defines belonging based on ethnicity, language, or religion, often excluding minority groups, as historically seen in Germany, Poland, and Russia.

Zionism and the Problem of Traditional Messianism

Zionism aimed to establish a Jewish homeland through human effort, which conflicted with traditional Jewish belief that Jews must wait in exile for the Messiah to bring divine redemption. Traditional messianism saw the return to Zion as a miraculous event, not a political project. Zionists like Herzl rejected this passivity, arguing that Jews needed to act to save themselves. This created tension between secular Zionists and religious authorities who viewed Zionism as premature or heretical.

Sheilat haGalut/Negation of the Diaspora

The question of exile: should Jews remain in the Diaspora and wait for redemption, or take action to return to Israel and restore Jewish sovereignty?

Ahad Ha’am

Founder of cultural Zionism who wanted a cultural and spiritual center in Palestine to revive Jewish values, language, and identity.

Jewish Workers Labor Bund

A secular Jewish socialist party founded in 1897 that focused on uniting Jewish workers under a shared political and cultural banner, rejecting both Zionism and Orthodox Judaism.

Bund of Russia and Poland

A socialist organization that emerged from the Jewish Workers Labor Bund, advocating for Jewish labor rights and cultural autonomy in Eastern Europe.

Arkady Kremer

One of the original founders of the Bund, he helped shape the idea that Jewish socialism must be rooted in Jewish life and culture.

Vladimir Medem

A key Bundist theorist who deepened the intellectual foundation of Diaspora nationalism.

Shimon Dubnow

A historian and political thinker who believed Jews were a “spiritual nation” bound together by culture, language, and history rather than territory.

Folksparti / Autonomism / Diaspora Centers

The Folksparti promoted Jewish cultural autonomy in the Diaspora instead of creating a Jewish state. Influenced by thinkers like Shimon Dubnow, it supported Yiddish education, Jewish schools, and minority rights within multi-ethnic countries. This approach, known as autonomism, viewed Diaspora centers like Vilna as legitimate homes for Jewish national life. It stood in contrast to both Zionism and assimilation.

Jewish Socialism

A broader movement that tied the Jewish working class to global socialist politics.

Di Shvue/The Oath

It was the anthem of the Jewish Workers Labor Bund, pledging loyalty to the fight for justice, socialism, and Jewish worker solidarity. Written in Yiddish, it symbolized the Bund’s commitment to secularism, Diaspora life, and resisting oppression. The song reflected the belief that Jews should fight for equality where they lived, not emigrate.

Jewish Immigration to the U.S.

From 1880 to 1924, over 2 million Jews emigrated from Eastern Europe to the United States, fleeing pogroms, poverty, and antisemitic laws.

Jewish Labor Movement to the US

Jewish immigrants became a driving force in the American labor movement, especially in garment factories.

Karl Marx, “On the Jewish Question”

Marx argued that political emancipation of Jews was not enough; true liberation required the end of religion and capitalism.

The Victory of Judaism over Germanism by Wilhelm Marr

This pamphlet popularized the term 'antisemitism' and marked a shift from religious-based hatred of Jews to racial antisemitism.

Adolf Stoecker

He was a German pastor who promoted antisemitism by claiming Jews had too much influence in German society. In his speech “What We Demand of Modern Jewry,” he called on Jews to give up their power and fully conform to Christian national values. He blended religious and political arguments to justify limiting Jewish rights. His ideas helped normalize antisemitism in pre-Nazi Germany.

Edouard Drumont, Jewish France

This book became a bestseller in France and one of the most influential antisemitic texts of the 19th century.

Karl Duhring, “The Jewish Question is a Question of Race”

He was a 19th-century German philosopher who argued that Jews were a biologically inferior race and could never truly assimilate. He believed the “Jewish question” was not about religion but about race. His ideas promoted exclusion and helped shape later racial antisemitism, including Nazi ideology.

Roman Dmowski

He was a Polish nationalist leader and co-founder of the National Democratic Party. In his writings and speeches, he argued that Jews were a foreign, harmful element in Polish society who could never truly be loyal to the Polish nation. He promoted an ethnic, Catholic vision of Poland, where Jews were seen as economically exploitative and culturally incompatible. Dmowski called for restricting Jewish rights and reducing their influence, helping make antisemitism a central part of early 20th-century Polish nationalism.

1856, The Privileges and Immunities of the non Muslim Communities

Part of the Tanzimat Reforms in the Ottoman Empire, this decree was meant to modernize the state and grant full equality to non-Muslim subjects, including Jews.

Alliance Israelite Universelle

Founded in Paris in 1860 by French Jews, the Alliance sought to “civilize” and modernize Jews in the Middle East and North Africa through education.

1870-1871, The Cremieux Decree and its aftermath

This decree gave French citizenship to Algerian Jews but excluded Muslims, causing resentment. It helped Jews integrate into French society, but deepened divisions under colonial rule. After Algerian independence, many Jews fled or were expelled due to being seen as aligned with the colonizers.

1912, Esther Moyal, “Our Renaissance”

She was a Lebanese Jewish journalist and feminist who wrote in Arabic and supported Arab-Jewish cooperation and women’s rights. In her 1912 article “Our Renaissance,” she called for a cultural awakening among Jewish women in the Middle East, emphasizing education, modern values, and participation in public life. She represented a modern Sephardic identity—rooted in Arab culture but open to reform. Her work shows how Jews in the Ottoman Empire could be both modern and regionally integrated, not just Westernized or Zionist.

1920, Alexander Benghiat, “An Ottoman’s Jew’s Early Education”

A Jewish memoirist from the Ottoman Empire, the memoir he wrote describes how Ottoman Jews experienced both religious and modern education. He reflects on growing up with traditional Jewish schooling while also encountering Western ideas. His story shows how Jews adapted to modernization within the Ottoman world.

Martin Buber

A Jewish Philosopher best known for idea of the “I-Thou” relationship.

1918, Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points: National self-determination, “From Empire to Nation States”

This was presented at the end of World War I, promoting national self-determination—the idea that ethnic and cultural groups should have the right to form their own sovereign states. This marked a shift from multi-ethnic empires (like the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian Empires) to a world of nation-states based on national identity. For Jews, it offered both hope and challenge: some supported the idea of a Jewish state, while others advocated for minority rights within new European countries. In practice, however, Jewish communities were often excluded from full national belonging.

1905, Failed Russian Revolution

It was a wave of mass protests, strikes, and political unrest across the Russian Empire, sparked by poverty, worker exploitation, and political repression. Jews participated in large numbers, especially through the Bund, demanding civil rights, protection from pogroms, and an end to autocracy. Although Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto promising reforms (like a Duma or parliament), real change was limited, and the revolution was ultimately crushed by force. For Jews, the revolution exposed both possibilities and dangers: new political engagement, but also intensified antisemitic violence from mobs and the state.

1917, The Provisional Government of Russia

After the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, a Provisional Government took control of Russia. It was a short-lived, liberal regime that granted civil and political rights to all citizens, including full emancipation for Jews for the first time in Russian history. Jews could now vote, hold office, and participate openly in public life. However, the government struggled to maintain power and was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in October. The brief period under the Provisional Government was a moment of hopeful transformation for Russian Jews—one that ended quickly with the rise of communism and civil war.

1917, Balfour Declaration

A letter from the British government to Lord Rothschild, stating that Britain supported the creation of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine.

1919, Treaty of Versailles

The peace treaty that ended World War I.

1919–1920, Minorities Treaties

These treaties were international agreements that promised Jews and other minorities equal rights in the new Eastern European states. They aimed to protect language, religion, and cultural autonomy. However, they were poorly enforced and often ignored, leaving Jews vulnerable to discrimination despite legal promises.

Weimar Germany

The democratic German republic created after WWI.

Franz Rosenzweig, Jewish Learning and the Return to Learning

A German-Jewish philosopher who believed Jews should reconnect with their tradition through study and dialogue rather than assimilation. He promoted a return to Jewish learning as a path to spiritual renewal. By founding the Lehrhaus, he created a space for both secular and religious Jews to engage with Jewish texts and identity.

Lehrhaus/Beit Midrash/"Secular" Study House, “Learning from the Outside In”

It was a modern Jewish study center founded by Franz Rosenzweig to help Jews reconnect with their tradition through open, communal learning. Inspired by the Beit Midrash, it welcomed both secular and religious Jews to explore Jewish texts and identity together.

1885, Pittsburgh Platform

This was the first official statement of beliefs by Reform Judaism in the United States, written in Pittsburgh by Reform rabbis.

1937, Columbus Platform

A revision of the Pittsburgh Platform, written as world events forced Reform Jews to reconsider their stance.

1948, Proclamation of the State of Israel

Read aloud by Ben-Gurion on May 14, 1948, this declaration established Israel as a sovereign Jewish state.

1950, Address to Knesset on the Law of Return

This address giving all Jews the right to immigrate to Israel and become citizens. Ben-Gurion described it as fulfilling Zionism’s promise to be a refuge for Jews after the Holocaust. It declared Israel the homeland of the Jewish people.

1950, David Ben-Gurion and Jacob Blaustein, Exchange of Views

They agreed that Israel was the homeland of the Jewish people, but not the political authority over Jews abroad. Blaustein stressed that American Jews were loyal U.S. citizens. The exchange helped balance support for Israel with national loyalty in the Diaspora.

1999 Reform Judaism Statement of Principles

A modern document updating the Reform movement’s core beliefs.

1919, Adolf Hitler, “A Letter on the Jewish Question”

This early letter by Adolf Hitler reveals the roots of Nazi antisemitic ideology.

1933, “Decrees Excluding Jews from German Cultural and Public Life.”

After Hitler came to power in 1933, the Nazi regime issued laws that banned Jews from civil service, schools, media, and the arts. These decrees were part of the Nazis' effort to remove Jews from all aspects of German public and cultural life, isolating them socially and economically. It marked the first legal step toward Jewish exclusion, setting the stage for more radical antisemitic policies.

1935, “Nuremberg Laws”

A set of racial laws that legally defined who was a Jew and stripped Jews of German citizenship. Jews were also not allowed to marry non-Jews anymore.

1938, Anschluss/Annexation of Austria

The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany.

1938, Hershl Grynszpan

He was a 17-year-old Polish-Jewish refugee living in France who, in November 1938, assassinated a German diplomat in Paris named Ernst vom Rath. He acted in protest after his family and thousands of other Polish Jews were expelled from Germany and left stranded at the Polish border. The Nazis used his act as a pretext for Kristallnacht, a violent pogrom against Jews across Germany and Austria. Grynszpan’s desperate action was turned into Nazi propaganda to justify further persecution of Jews.

1938, Kristallnacht

Also known as the “Night of Broken Glass,” this Nazi-organized pogrom occurred on November 9–10, 1938.

1939, Hitler’s Prophecy

In a speech to the Reichstag, Hitler declared that if a world war broke out, the result would be "the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe."

1939, Hitler-Stalin Pact

Also called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, this was a non-aggression agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.

1941, Operation Barbarossa

Launched on June 22, 1941, this was Nazi Germany’s surprise invasion of the Soviet Union.

Einsatzgruppen

These were mobile killing units made up of SS, police, and local collaborators who followed the German army into Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

Babi Yar

A ravine outside Kyiv, Ukraine, and the site of one of the largest mass shootings of Jews during the Holocaust.

Ponar

A wooded area outside Vilna (Vilnius) in Lithuania, it was used by Nazis and Lithuanian collaborators to murder around 100,000 people, mostly Jews, but also Poles and Roma.

Final Solution

The Nazi plan to exterminate all Jews in Europe, formally coordinated in 1942 at the Wannsee Conference.

Intentionalists vs. Functionalists

A major debate among Holocaust historians The I group believe the Holocaust was planned from the start by Hitler and the Nazis. The F group argue it developed gradually through wartime decisions and escalating policies. The debate explores whether genocide was premeditated or evolved over time.

1942, Wannsee Conference

Held near Berlin in January 20, 1942, this meeting brought together high-ranking Nazi officials to coordinate the implementation of the Final Solution.

Ghettoization

This process was the Nazi policy of confining Jews to overcrowded, isolated city sections under harsh conditions. It was a step toward deportation to death camps. It caused mass suffering but also became sites of resistance.

Death Camps, Birkenau and Sobibor

This camp (Auschwitz II) was the largest Nazi extermination camp, located in occupied Poland. Over 1 million Jews were killed there, mainly in gas chambers using Zyklon B. It became the central site of the Final Solution, combining industrial-scale murder with forced labor.
The other camp was a Nazi death camp in Poland, built solely for extermination as part of Operation Reinhard. Around 250,000 Jews were murdered there, mostly by gas. In 1943, a prisoner uprising led to the escape of some inmates, after which the camp was destroyed by the Nazis.

Oneg Shabbat Archive

A secret documentation project led by historian Emanuel Ringelblum in the Warsaw Ghetto.

Vilna Paper Brigade

A group of Jewish scholars and librarians in the Vilna Ghetto who risked their lives to smuggle and hide rare Jewish books and manuscripts from the Nazis.