FInal exam study guide

What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? What would be an example of each?

The difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that, in inductive reasoning, one moves from specific observations to a general conclusion, while in deductive reasoning, one moves from general principles to a specific conclusion.

Explain introspection.

introspection is the process of examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and experiences in order to gain insight into one's own mental states and processes.

What does Gestalt mean?

Gestalt means "shape" or "form," and in psychology, it refers to a particular approach to understanding the mind and behavior that emphasizes the active and creative nature of the mind, and the importance of context and relationships in understanding mental processes.

What are the elements of critical thinking?

The elements of critical thinking are the cognitive processes and skills that are involved in evaluating and analyzing information in a systematic and objective way.

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Identifying and defining the problem or question at hand

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Gathering and evaluating relevant information

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Analyzing and synthesizing the information

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Drawing well-supported conclusions

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Evaluating the conclusions and the process used to reach them

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Communicating the conclusions effectively

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Reflecting on and revising the conclusions in light of new evidence or perspectives

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What is the scientific method?

The scientific method is a systematic approach to investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It involves making observations, asking questions, and gathering evidence in order to test hypotheses and explain observations.

What is a correlation?

A correlation is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables. It indicates how closely two variables are related, and can range from -1 to +1.

A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases. For example, there is a positive correlation between height and weight, because taller people tend to weigh more.

A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. For example, there is a negative correlation between study time and grades, because students who study more tend to get better grades.

A correlation of zero indicates that there is no relationship between the two variables.

It is important to note that a correlation does not necessarily imply causation. In other words, just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one variable is causing the other.

Why is correlation not causation?

Correlation does not imply causation because the relationship between two variables does not necessarily mean that one variable is causing the other. In other words, just because two things are related does not mean that one thing is causing the other. For example, there may be a correlation between the number of hours someone spends on the internet and their grades, but this does not necessarily mean that spending more time on the internet causes grades to go down. There could be other factors that are causing both the internet use and the low grades, such as a lack of motivation or other distractions.

In a scientific study, what is a variable? What happens when there are two variables?

In a scientific study, a variable is a factor that can change or take on different values. There are two main types of variables: dependent variables and independent variables. The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or observed in the study, and it is expected to change based on the manipulation of the independent variable. The independent variable is the variable that is being manipulated or controlled by the researcher, and it is expected to have an effect on the dependent variable.

What purpose does two variables serve in a scientific study?

When there are two variables in a scientific study, it allows the researcher to investigate the relationship between the two variables and determine whether there is a causal relationship.

For example, if a researcher is studying the effect of exercise on weight, the independent variable would be the amount of exercise, and the dependent variable would be the weight. By manipulating the amount of exercise and measuring the weight, the researcher can determine whether there is a relationship between the two variables and whether exercise has an effect on weight. This information can be used to develop new treatments or interventions to address weight-related issues.

Why would a study have a double-blind procedure and what does it mean?

A double-blind procedure is often used in scientific studies to reduce bias and improve the reliability of the results. In a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group. This is meant to prevent the researchers from unconsciously influencing the participants or the results of the study, and it also prevents the participants from knowing which treatment they are receiving, which can affect their behavior and the outcome of the study.

Using a double-blind procedure is particularly important in studies that are testing the effectiveness of a new drug or treatment, because it helps to ensure that the results are not influenced by the expectations or beliefs of the participants or the researchers. It also allows the researchers to more accurately determine the true effects of the treatment, without being influenced by other factors.

Explain observer bias.

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Observer bias is a major concern in scientific research, because it can lead to inaccurate or misleading results. It is particularly problematic in studies that rely on subjective measurements, such as surveys or interviews, where the researcher's own beliefs and assumptions can easily influence the way they collect and interpret the data. To reduce observer bias, researchers can use a variety of techniques, such as using double-blind procedures, having multiple researchers independently collect and analyze the data, or using objective measurements whenever possible.

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Explain the primitive part of the brain.

The primitive part of the brain is also known as the brainstem. It is the oldest and most basic part of the brain, and it is responsible for controlling many of the body's most essential functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. The brainstem is located at the base of the brain, and it consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain.

Explain the autonomic functions

The autonomic functions of the brain are those that are automatic and involuntary, meaning that they happen without our conscious control. These functions include things like digestion, sweating, and pupil dilation. The autonomic nervous system, which is located in the brainstem and other parts of the brain, is responsible for controlling these functions. It is divided into two main branches: the sympathetic nervous system, which is activated in response to stress or danger, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for regulating rest and relaxation. Together, these two systems help to maintain the body's internal balance and keep it functioning properly.

What part of the brain is known as your message station?

The part of the brain that is known as the "message station" is the thalamus. The thalamus is located in the center of the brain, above the brainstem and below the cerebrum. It acts as a relay station for incoming sensory information, receiving signals from the senses and sending them to the appropriate areas of the brain for further processing. The thalamus is also involved in the control of consciousness, sleep, and arousal. It plays a crucial role in the brain's ability to process and integrate sensory information, and it is an important part of the brain's overall communication network.

The brain cross-wires between hemispheres. Explain what this means.

When the brain cross-wires between hemispheres, it means that the neural connections between the two hemispheres are stronger or more extensive than usual. The brain is typically divided into two hemispheres, the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere, which are connected by a thick bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. In most people, the two hemispheres are specialized for different functions, with the left hemisphere being responsible for language and logical thinking, and the right hemisphere being responsible for spatial awareness and emotional processing.

Latin for “little brain,” this holds ___ of your brain’s __________.

The Latin term for "little brain" is cerebellum.

The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum and above the brainstem.

The cerebellum contains about half of the brain's neurons, and it is an important part of the brain's overall network of communication and coordination.

What does the cerebellum do?

It is responsible for coordinating voluntary movement and balance, and it plays a crucial role in the brain's ability to learn new motor skills.

The amygdala, which is part of the __________ system, is responsible for what?

The amygdala, which is part of the limbic system, is responsible for regulating emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

The amygdala is a small, almond-shaped structure located in the temporal lobe of the brain.

It is involved in the processing of emotional memories and in the formation of emotional responses to stimuli. The amygdala is also involved in the body's "fight or flight" response, which is the automatic physiological response to fear or danger.

It is an important part of the brain's network of emotional processing, and it plays a crucial role in our ability to experience and express emotions.

The hypothalamus which is also part of the ________ system, is responsible for what?

The hypothalamus, which is part of the limbic system, is responsible for regulating many of the body's basic functions, such as hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

The hypothalamus is a small, almond-shaped structure located at the base of the brain, above the brainstem and below the thalamus.

It is involved in the control of many important physiological processes, such as the release of hormones, the regulation of body temperature, and the control of the autonomic nervous system.

The hypothalamus is also involved in the control of emotions and behavior, and it plays a key role in the brain's overall system of communication and coordination.

The hippocampus has what purpose?

The hippocampus is a part of the brain that is involved in the formation of new memories and in spatial navigation.

It is located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain, and it is shaped like a seahorse.

The hippocampus is critical for the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory, and it plays a key role in our ability to learn and remember new information.

Damage to the hippocampus can result in memory loss and impairments in spatial navigation, and it has been linked to conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

What devastating disease affects the hippocampus

Alzheimer's disease and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

What do mirror neurons do?

Mirror neurons are a type of neuron that is involved in imitation and empathy.

Mirror neurons are located in the premotor cortex and the inferior parietal lobe of the brain, and they are activated when an individual performs a particular action or observes another individual performing that action.

For example, if an individual sees someone else reaching for an object, the mirror neurons in their brain will fire as if they were reaching for the object themselves. This helps to enable the individual to understand and imitate the actions of others.

Mirror neurons are also thought to play a role in empathy, because they allow us to understand and share the emotions of others.

Explain brain plasticity

Brain plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity, is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections and adapting to new experiences.

This means that the brain is constantly changing and adapting based on our experiences, thoughts, and behaviors.

Brain plasticity is a key factor in learning and memory, because it allows the brain to encode and store new information.

It also plays a role in recovery from brain injuries, because it allows the brain to compensate for damaged or lost neural connections.

Brain plasticity occurs throughout our lives, but it is most pronounced during early childhood and adolescence.

Explain phantom limb syndrome.

Phantom limb syndrome is a condition in which an individual continues to experience sensations in a limb that has been amputated.

This can include sensations of pain, itching, or movement in the missing limb.

The cause of phantom limb syndrome is not well understood, but it is thought to be related to changes in the brain and nervous system following amputation.

The brain is still receiving sensory input from the nerves that used to be connected to the amputated limb, but without the limb, the brain is unable to interpret this input properly, leading to the sensation of a phantom limb.

Phantom limb syndrome can be treated with a variety of techniques, such as pain medication, physical therapy, and nerve stimulation.

List and explain all the terms related to the neuron’s structure.

Dendrites: Dendrites are the "arms" of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

Cell body: The cell body is the "main part" of the neuron, where the important cell functions take place.

Axon: The axon is a "cable" that carries signals away from the cell body to other neurons or target cells.

Axon terminal: The axon terminal is the "end" of the axon, where it connects to other neurons.

Synapse: A synapse is the "gap" between two neurons, where signals are transmitted from one to the other.

Myelin sheath: The myelin sheath is a "covering" that surrounds the axon and helps to increase the speed of signal transmission.

Nerve impulse: A nerve impulse is an "electrical signal" that is generated by a neuron and transmitted along the axon. It is what allows neurons to communicate with each other.

How does one neuron communicate with another neuron?

Neurons communicate with each other through a process called neurotransmission. When an electrical impulse, or "action potential," travels down the axon of a neuron, it reaches the end of the axon and triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters then cross the tiny gap, or synapse, between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another. Once they reach the dendrite, the neurotransmitters bind to special proteins called receptors on the surface of the dendrite, which causes a change in the electrical charge of the dendrite. This change in electrical charge then triggers a new action potential in the next neuron, which continues the process of neurotransmission.

List neurotransmitters and their functions.

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are involved in transmitting signals from one neuron to another. Some common neurotransmitters and their functions include:

Acetylcholine: involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning

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Dopamine: involved in pleasure, reward, and motivation

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Serotonin: involved in mood, sleep, and appetite

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Norepinephrine: involved in the body's "fight or flight" response to stress

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GABA: an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps regulate brain activity and prevent over-excitation

What makes up the central nervous system (CNS).

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.

The brain is the control center of the body and is responsible for processing sensory information, generating thoughts and emotions, controlling movement and coordination, and many other functions.

The spinal cord, on the other hand, is a long, delicate tube of nerve tissue that runs from the brain down through the center of the back. It serves as a sort of "highway" for information, carrying signals back and forth between the brain and the rest of the body.

Together, the brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system, which is the body's primary information processing and control center.

Explain the subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of the nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing. It has two main subdivisions: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

The sympathetic nervous system is like the "on switch" for your body's fight or flight response. It helps you get ready to run or fight when you're in danger. It makes your heart beat faster and gives you more energy.

The parasympathetic nervous system is like the "off switch" for your body's fight or flight response. It helps you calm down and relax when you're not in danger. It makes your heart beat slower and helps you digest your food.

Together, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems help keep your body running smoothly. They help you respond to danger and then calm down when the danger is over.

What is sensation?

Sensation is the process of detecting and interpreting information from your environment using your senses. Your senses are things like your eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, which help you see, hear, smell, taste, and feel things. When you see a beautiful sunset, hear a funny joke, or taste a delicious piece of chocolate, you are experiencing sensation.

What is perception?

Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting the information that you receive from your senses to create a meaningful experience of the world. It's how your brain makes sense of the raw data that your senses gather from the environment.

Explain top-down and bottom-up processing as it relates to sensation and perception.

Top-down processing is when your brain uses previous knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information. For example, if you see a picture of a dog, your brain will use its knowledge of what dogs look like to help you recognize the picture as a dog.

Bottom-up processing is when your brain uses the raw sensory information to build a perception of the world. For example, if you see a picture of a dog, your brain will first process the individual details of the picture, like the shape of the dog's ears, the color of its fur, and the position of its legs. It will then use this information to build a perception of the dog as a whole

How does transduction occur?

Transduction is the process by which your senses convert physical stimuli from the environment into electrical signals that your brain can understand. It is the first step in the process of sensation, and it happens in different ways for each of your senses.

For example, when you see something, light from the object enters your eye and hits the retina, a layer of cells at the back of your eye. The retina contains special cells called photoreceptors, which convert the light into electrical signals. These signals are then sent to your brain, where they are interpreted as sight.

Explain absolute threshold.

The absolute threshold is the minimum level of stimulation that a person can detect with their senses. It is the smallest amount of a stimulus that a person can detect, and it is different for each type of sensory information. For example, the absolute threshold for sight is the smallest amount of light that a person can see, while the absolute threshold for hearing is the softest sound that a person can hear.

How does sensory adaptation occur?

Sensory adaptation is the process by which the sensitivity of a person's senses changes over time in response to the environment. It is a natural process that helps our senses stay attuned to the world around us and maintain a stable perception of the environment.

For example, when you first enter a dark room, your eyes will take a few moments to adjust to the low light levels. This is because your eyes are adapting to the new environment and increasing their sensitivity to the available light. Once your eyes have adapted, you will be able to see better in the dark room.

What are elements of hallucination?

Some common elements of hallucinations include seeing things that are not really there (visual hallucinations), hearing voices or other sounds that are not really there (auditory hallucinations), and having unusual sensations on the skin or in the body (tactile hallucinations). Hallucinations can be vivid and detailed, or they can be more vague and fleeting. They can be frightening or disturbing, or they can be pleasurable or enjoyable.

What is signal detection theory?

Signal detection theory is a psychological model that describes how people detect and respond to sensory stimuli in the environment. It is based on the idea that people's ability to detect a stimulus, such as a sound or a light, is influenced by a combination of factors, including the strength of the stimulus, the person's expectations and motivations, and the person's sensitivity to the stimulus.

What is parallel processing?

Parallel processing is a term used to describe the way that the brain processes information. It refers to the idea that the brain can process multiple streams of information simultaneously, rather than processing information one step at a time.

Explain inattentional blindness.

Inattentional blindness is a phenomenon in which a person fails to notice an unexpected object or event because their attention is focused elsewhere. It is a type of cognitive failure that can occur when a person is engaged in a complex or demanding task that requires a lot of their attention.

What are nociceptors?

Nociceptors are specialized sensory receptors that are found in the skin and other tissues throughout the body. They are responsible for detecting potentially harmful stimuli, such as extreme heat or cold, pressure, or tissue damage, and sending signals to the brain to let us know that something is wrong.

What is prosopagnosia?

How does priming work?

Prosopagnosia, also known as face blindness, is a condition in which a person has difficulty recognizing faces, even the faces of people they know well. People with prosopagnosia often have trouble remembering and distinguishing between different faces, and they may use other cues, such as a person's hair, voice, or clothing, to recognize them.

What is the biopsychosocial approach to pain?

The biopsychosocial approach to pain is a model that explains pain as a complex phenomenon that is influenced by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. This approach recognizes that pain is not just a physical sensation, but also a subjective experience that is influenced by a person's thoughts, emotions, and social context.

Explain congenital insensitivity.

Congenital insensitivity is a condition in which a person is unable to feel certain types of sensations, such as pain, temperature, or pressure. It is a rare condition that is present at birth and is caused by a genetic mutation that affects the development of the nervous system.

Explain proprioception.

Proprioception is the sense of the position and movement of the body. It is a sense that helps us know where our body parts are in space, and it is an important part of our ability to move and navigate the world around us.

What is anosmia?

Anosmia is a condition in which a person is unable to smell. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including inflammation or damage to the nose or the part of the brain that is responsible for smelling, and it can be temporary or permanent.

How is consciousness defined?

Consciousness is the state of being aware of one's thoughts, feelings, and surroundings. It is the quality that allows us to experience the world around us and to have subjective experiences.

Can consciousness be studied – why or why not?

While consciousness is a complex and mysterious phenomenon, it can be studied using a variety of methods and approaches such as:

Study the physical processes of the brain, and to try to understand how the brain's activity gives rise to consciousness

Study subjective experience, and to try to understand what it is like to be conscious.

What is change blindness?

Change blindness is a phenomenon in which people fail to notice significant changes in their environment. It is a type of cognitive failure that can occur when a person is focused on a specific task or object, and they are not paying attention to the changes that are happening around them.

What is selective attention?

Selective attention is the ability to focus on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring other stimuli or distractions. It is a fundamental aspect of our mental lives, and it is essential for many of the brain's functions, including perception, learning, and memory.

What is a circadian rhythm and what is the length of the circadian rhythm?

A circadian rhythm is a daily cycle of physiological, behavioral, and cognitive processes that are driven by the body's internal clock. It is an important part of the body's physiological and psychological systems, and it helps to regulate many of the body's functions, including sleep, metabolism, body temperature, and hormone levels.

The length of the circadian rhythm is approximately 24 hours, although it can vary slightly from person to person and can be affected by factors such as age, lifestyle, and environmental conditions.

What are the sleep stages (NREMs) and how does this relate to brainwaves?

The sleep stages, also known as non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, are four distinct phases of sleep that the body and brain go through during a typical night's sleep.

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Stage 1:This is the lightest stage of sleep, and it is a transition between wakefulness and sleep. During this stage, the brain produces slow, regular brainwaves, and the body's muscles relax and the heart rate and breathing slow down.

Stage 2: During this stage, the brain produces faster, irregular brainwaves, and the body's muscles relax even more and the heart rate and breathing slow down even further.

Stage 3: During this stage, the brain produces even slower, regular brainwaves, and the body's muscles relax completely and the heart rate and breathing slow down even more.

Stage 4: During this stage, the brain produces the slowest and most regular brainwaves, and the body's muscles are completely relaxed and the heart rate and breathing are at their slowest.

What is paradoxical sleep?

Paradoxical sleep, also known as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, is a distinct stage of sleep that is characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, and muscle paralysis. It is a unique and important stage of sleep, and it is thought to be essential for maintaining healthy brain function and overall health and wellbeing.

What is narcolepsy?

Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder that affects the brain's ability to regulate sleep and wakefulness. People with narcolepsy experience excessive daytime sleepiness and may have sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep during the day, even when they are in the middle of an activity.

What are night terrors?

Night terrors, also known as sleep terrors, are a type of sleep disorder that is characterized by sudden, intense feelings of fear or terror during the night. These episodes typically occur during the first few hours of sleep, and they can last for several minutes to half an hour.

Why is sleep paralysis (atonia) important?

Sleep paralysis is a state of temporary paralysis that occurs when a person is falling asleep or waking up. It is a common and normal part of the sleep process, and it is thought to be important for maintaining healthy sleep and overall health and wellbeing.

Explain working memory, and what is it also known as?

Working memory is the cognitive system that allows us to temporarily hold and manipulate information in the mind. It is also known as short-term memory, and it is an essential part of many of the brain's functions, including learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

What are the key memory structures of the brain?

The key memory structures of the brain are the regions of the brain that are involved in the formation, storage, and retrieval of memories. These structures include the hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex, and the amygdala, among others, and they work together to enable the brain to encode, store, and retrieve information about the world around us.

What are flashbulb memories?

Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events. They are called flashbulb memories because they are often so clear and detailed that they seem like a photograph, or a "flashbulb," of the moment.

How do mnemonic strategies for recall work?

Mnemonic techniques are ways to help you memorize a phrase or idea with patterns.

What is explicit and implicit memory?

Explicit and implicit memory are two different types of memory that are involved in different aspects of the brain's memory system. Explicit memory is involved in the conscious, intentional recall of information, while implicit memory is involved in the automatic, unconscious use of previously learned information. These two types of memory work together to enable the brain to encode, store, and retrieve memories, and they are an important part of our overall cognitive abilities.

How does chunking memory strategy for recall work?

Chunking is a useful and effective memory strategy that can be used to improve memory and recall. By organizing information into smaller, more manageable chunks, we can reduce the demands on working memory and make it easier to remember and recall complex or detailed information.

How does priming work with unconscious memory associations?

Priming is a phenomenon in which exposure to a stimulus influences a person's response to a subsequent stimulus. In the context of memory, priming involves the unconscious activation of specific memories or associations in response to a specific stimulus.

Explain sensory memory including iconic and echoic memory.

Sensory memory is the initial, brief storage of sensory information, and it is divided into two subtypes: iconic memory(visual domain) and echoic memory(auditory domain.) These types of memory are important for allowing us to process sensory information and lay the groundwork for the formation of longer-term memories.

What is infantile amnesia, and who created the term? How long is it supposed to last?

Infantile amnesia (coined by Sigmund Freud) is the phenomenon of adults' inability to remember events from their earliest years of life. It is also known as childhood amnesia, and it is a common and well-documented aspect of human memory.

Infantile amnesia is typically thought to last until around age three or four.

Explain the misinformation effect and the imagination effect. How can this cause issues with our “replay” of events in our lives? Explain how this can relate to the childhood game “telephone.”

The misinformation effect and the imagination effect are two related phenomena that can have a significant impact on the way we remember and recall events from our lives.

These effects can cause issues with our "replay" of events in our lives, because they can cause us to remember events differently than they actually happened

The misinformation effect and the imagination effect can be compared to the childhood game "telephone," in which a message is passed from person to person, and it is often distorted or changed as it is passed along.

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What is unconditioned stimulus?

A stimulus that automatically produces a response without any prior learning.

For example, in classical conditioning, food is often used because it automatically produces a response (such as salivation) without any prior learning.

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What is conditioned stimulus?

A neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

For example, in classical conditioning, a tone might be used because it does not automatically produce a response on its own. However, when it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food), it can be made to produce a response (such as salivation) through learning.

What is unconditioned response?

The automatic response that is produced by the unconditioned stimulus.

For example, in classical conditioning, salivation is often because it is an automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus (food).

What is conditioned response?

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The response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus after it has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

For example, in classical conditioning, salivation to the tone (the conditioned stimulus) would be the conditioned response, because it has been learned through pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (food)

What are operant conditioning reinforcers and punishments?

In operant conditioning, reinforcers and punishments are used to increase or decrease the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated in the future. Reinforcers are stimuli that are presented after a behavior, and they increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. Punishments, on the other hand, are stimuli that are presented after a behavior, and they decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future.

In relation to learning, explain adaptability and association.

Adaptability refers to the ability of an organism to change its behavior in response to the consequences of that behavior.

For example, if a behavior is reinforced, the organism will be more likely to repeat that behavior in the future, because it has learned that the behavior has a positive consequence.

Association, on the other hand, refers to the way in which an organism learns to associate a specific behavior with a specific consequence.

For example, if a behavior is reinforced, the organism will learn to associate that behavior with the positive consequence, and it will be more likely to repeat the behavior in the future.

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In relation to learning, explain acquisition and consequences (associative learning).

Acquisition typically involves the repeated pairing of a behavior with a reinforcing or punishing stimulus, and it results in the formation of an association between the behavior and the consequence.

Consequences, also known as associative learning, refer to the way in which an organism learns to associate a specific behavior with a specific consequence. T

hrough operant conditioning, an organism learns to repeat behaviors that are reinforced, and to avoid behaviors that are punished. This is an important part of the way that animals and humans learn, and it is an essential part of our ability to adapt to our environment.

Explain the classical conditioning process as it relates to extinction and spontaneous recovery.

Extinction: when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly without the uncontrolled stimulus and the conditioned response reduces.

Spontaneous recovery: is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a pause of extinguished conditioned response.

Explain classical conditioning as it relates to generalization and discrimination.

Generalization: once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response. \n

Discrimination:learned ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and stimulus that does not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

What is operant conditioning? How does it work?

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.

What is partial reinforcement? Cite and example.

Partial reinforcement is reinforcing an organism only sometimes and not everytime the desired behavior occurs.

Bandura explored observational learning with the Bobo doll. What was the experiment?

The experiment was executed via a team of researchers who physically and verbally abused an inflatable doll in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to later mimic the behaviour of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion.

What are the prosocial effects of observational learning?

The prosocial effects of observational learning encourage socially acceptable behavior.

What is the James-Lange theory on arousal and emotion?

The James–Lange theory proposes that emotional stimuli first induce peripheral physiological variations, which occur without consciousness of affect.

What is the Cannon-Bard theory on arousal and emotion?

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that stimulating events trigger feelings and physical reactions that occur at the same tim

Explain the spillover effect

The spillover effect is defined as occurring “when attitudes in one role positively spill over into another role.” This is referring to the relationship between work and life and how one's positive experience in one role can carry over into another role.

What are the different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing), safety (job security), love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up

Explain primary motivations of the hedonic principle.

Hedonism is a type of consequentialism(a theory that says whether something is good or bad depends on its outcomes), and it has several forms. For example, normative hedonism is the idea that pleasure should be people's primary motivation.

How is motivation defined?

Motivation is derived from the word 'motive', which denotes a person's needs, desires, wants, or urges.

It is the process of motivating individuals to take action in order to achieve a goal.

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Explain intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation involves doing something because it's personally rewarding to you. Extrinsic motivation involves doing something because you want to earn a reward or avoid punishment.

What is terror management theory?

The terror management theory (TMT) states that people feel threatened by their own death and therefore adopt worldviews that allow them to find meaning and worth in their lives.

What is telegraphic language?

Telegraphic speech is simply two-word sentences, such as “kitty tired” or “I hungry”. Toddlers develop this level of speech between 18-24 months. Telegraphic speech is important because it means your little one is: Learning to communicate their thoughts and feelings.

What is fast mapping?

Fast-mapping is the ability to acquire a word rapidly on the basis of minimal information

What is the nativist theory?

Nativism assumes that children will attain language during a gradual process of maturation and the setting of parameters.

What is the difference in language centers – Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area?

Wernicke's area and Broca's area are two areas of the brain that play a part in language. Broca's area is associated with language production, while Wernicke's area is associated with language comprehension.

How were animals such as Nim, Washoe, and Kanzi taught language?

Nim, Washoe, and Kanzi were all animals that were taught language through a process called "animal language learning."

This process involved teaching the animals to communicate using symbols or signs, such as gestures or pictures.

For example, Nim was taught to use American Sign Language (ASL) to communicate with his human trainers, while Washoe was taught to use a system of gestures known as "Gorilla Sign Language" (GSL). Kanzi, on the other hand, was taught to communicate using a keyboard that had symbols on it, which he could select to form sentences.

How does framing effect work?

Framing refers to the way in which information is presented or framed in order to influence people's perceptions and decisions.

Explain belief perseverance.

Belief perseverance is the tendency for people to continue believing something, even when presented with new information that contradicts their beliefs

Explain confirmation bias.

Confirmation bias is the tendency for people to seek out information that confirms their preexisting beliefs, while ignoring or downplaying information that contradicts those beliefs.

This can happen because people are often more drawn to information that aligns with their beliefs and values, and they may be less willing to consider evidence that goes against their beliefs

Explain optimism bias.

Optimism bias is the tendency for people to overestimate their chances of success or to underestimate the likelihood of negative events happening to them.

For example, a person with optimism bias might believe that they are less likely to get into a car accident than the average person, or that they are more likely to get a job promotion than their coworkers.

Explain concepts, categories, and prototype.

Concepts, categories, and prototypes help us to organize our thoughts and make sense of the world around us. They allow us to think about things in a more structured and meaningful way.

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A concept is an idea or a notion that represents something we understand or can think about.

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Categories are groups or classes that we put things into based on shared characteristics or qualities

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A prototype is a typical or ideal example of a category or concept

What is the availability heuristic?

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that we use to make judgments and decisions based on information that is readily available to us.

This means that we tend to rely on information that is easily remembered or easily accessible, rather than trying to consider all the available information.

When thinking creatively, what is convergent and divergent thinking?

Both convergent thinking and divergent thinking are important for creative problem-solving, and they often work together. Convergent thinking helps us to focus and evaluate our ideas, while divergent thinking helps us to generate and explore new ideas.

What is the illusory truth effect?

The illusory truth effect is the tendency for people to believe that something is true simply because they have heard it before, even if it is not actually true. This is because hearing something repeatedly can make it feel familiar and more believable, even if there is no evidence to support it.