migration, identity and sovereignty

core-periphery model

• core is urban and periphery is rural

• rural-urban migration of labour means that there are higher paying jobs and transport links in the core

• periphery areas provide raw materials to core

• investment in core leads to disparity and polarisation increasing which means that periphery areas become ghost towns with no schools or services, ageing population, leads to cycle of decline

• backwash - flows of capital, labour and investment from periphery to core. leads to economic polarisation

• global systems encourage core-periphery modek

• rural areas - LIC - agribusinesses are run commercially on a large scale. uses chemicals and technology so less labour is required. leads to a seasonal economy and poverty traps unless rural to urban migration happens

• export processing zones - investment from TNCs due to low/no tax, which leads to rural-urban migration

rural-urban migration in China

• between 150-250 million Chinese have moved within china since 1975

• net losers are central provinces whereas coastal, eastern areas are gainers

• by 2020, 60% of population lived in cities

• cheap labour force attracts FDI and so migration enabled economic growth

rural-urban migration in Spain

• led to Celtiberian highlands have been abandoned

• 600 villages with less than 100 people and average age of 57

• high rural unemployment led to young people migrating

• schools have been shut and low birth rate means no recovery

international migration in EU Schengen area

• in 1995, free movement of labour has led to migration from eastern and southern europe

• allows labour to move where demand is

• has led to a growth of nationalist movements and racism and hostility towards migrants has become more common

migration definition

• movement of people across a specified boundary, national or international, to establish a new permanent place of residence. permanent migrants are defined by UN as lasting more than a year, any shorter is called circulatory movement

refugee definition

• a protected legal status and under international law all countries have a duty to protect refugees. they have fled their country to escape conflict or persecution

• 42.5 million global refugees in June 2025

asylum seeker definition

• a person who is seeking refuge status and international protection. however their claims have not yet bee evaluated and are still being processed

• not all asylum seekers will be recognised as refugees. if they are not recognised then are considered illegal migrants as they don’t have a legitimate reason to stay

• 8.4 million asylum seekers in June 2025

complexities of migration

• post-colonial migrants - people moving to the UK from former colonies

• diaspora - small communities from world choosing to relocate in another place. share similar culture or are from the same ethnic background

• main reason for migration is employment

• other factors - poverty in their local area, lack of employment, low commodity, poor access to markets, internal political issues, democracy

• 26 million people were forced to leave their homes in 2020

• migrants tend to be the richer people from their country (payment to traffickers can be between £1000-£3000 per journey)

• in 2015, 20,000 people died as a result of unsafe boats

labour flows refer to economic migrants and:

• families that join initial migrants, this eventually leads to extended family joining and so will lead to a community of people sharing culture

• conflict could be gangs, political persecution, terrorist organisations e.g. Rohingya forced to leave Myanmar for religious reasons, 1 million people went to Bangladesh

European migrant crisis (2015-2019)

• mainly from MENA (Middle East, North Africa)

• 2 million people tried to get into Europe by sea or overland through Turkey

• in 2016, over 1 million arrived in boats

• mainly arrive in Italy and Greece

• lots of people from various country seeking to migrate for lots of reasons

issues with refugees

• lack of documents to show status - no passports, IDs

• political reasons - the EU official line is for asylum seekers to claim status in the first country but this was leading to resentment in Italy and Greece. so the EU decided to share the number of migrants (Germany took the highest number of 1.7 million)

• ethical debate - in 2015 a Syrian refugee set of a bomb in Paris and so there was much discussion about whether passport checks needs to be re-instated across the Schengen area

schengen area

• freedom of capital and labour flows understanding that people are economic assets and can choose to be hired by European businesses. this will lead to high economic growth.

use of social media

• (whatsapp) station of the forced wanderers. 100,000 members. acted as a place to set up a journey/payment for migrants to travel to Europe.

core-periphery model - Friedmann

• a strong economic core developed fuelled by the in-migration of people (workers and investors) from the peripheral regions of a state

• in economic theory additional core regions form as part of the development process over time. the growth of these cores is fuelled by flows of raw materials and workers from neighbouring areas

• trickle down effect - creation of wealth in other areas

• negative externalities - people and the environment suffer from the core e.g pollution, depression, wealth disparity

the economic rational for permitting free movement of people

• the core-periphery model of economic development depends on a process called backwash. migrants labour flows become focused on core regions at varying geographic scales. within the eu, this movement takes place at both the national and international level. the latter has been encouraged by the Schengen Agreement since 1985. the majority of the EU’s 27 members are now Schengen countries

• migration is viewed by Neo-liberal economic theory as an efficient way of making sure that economic output of a territory is optimised

impacts of migration

• migration has become a major issue for global community. it is being accelerated by technology, shrinking world, access to internet, political agreements to encourage freedom of movement, more available capital to migrate

• the biggest challenge is managing migration in HICs due to the high number of people

• migration can change a country due to ethnic and cultural reasons

• French and Irish migrants are an example of cultural diversity

• assimilation is people changing and adapting to the majority culture

Mexico - US migration

• highly unequal spatial distribution

• migrants are a vital part of the economy as migrants will work long hours with low pay. high unemployment

• terrorist attacks has led to heightened security

• youthful migration helps offset ageing population

• cultural changes has influenced food, music and language

social and economic factors

social positive

• creation of a multiethnic society increases understanding and tolerance of other cultures

• there is less pressure on resources such as food and social services such as healthcare

• influx of new or revitalised services

social negative

• aspects of cultural identity are lost in second generations

• increased pressure on services

• segregated ethnic areas are created and schools can become dominated by migrant children

economic positive

• migrants encourage language learning which can lead to international work

• host country gains skilled labour

• remittances can be sent home to improve education and health services

economic negative

• loss of young workforce especially the skilled workers

• loss of labour could lead to reduced investment

• much of the money earned in host country is sent back as remittances
  

different stakeholders opinions

• migrants keep NHS going as nurses/doctors

• migrants do unwanted jobs

• local children and parents no longer speak english

• “country doesn’t feel English”

• migrants can send remittances back to their families

North America

North America was home to a heterogenous mix of indigenous people. however today, 328 million people occupy the same territory. the majority are descendants of a global mix that includes Italians, Greeks, Scandinavians, Irish etc. American culture has become a melting pot that is broadly inclusive and dynamic as it welcomes migrants and modifies with each culture. this means that America lacks a definitive national identity

nation state definition

a nation state has sovereignty whereas a nation does not. sovereignty is the ability to self-govern. e.g. England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland are nations but make up the nation state of the UK

national borders definition

• formed by natural landscapes like rivers or mountains e.g. pyrenees between France and Spain

the division of Africa

• there are 54 countries but over 2000 ethnic group and over 3000 languages spoken.

• 14 countries had a conference in Berlin to divide up the continent.

• at the time 80% was under indigenous control but was divided by geometric boundaries with no account for tribal or linguistic boundaries. African people had no say in the partitioning of their homelands

Rwanda

• was run by Tutsi, Hutu and Twa people

• Germany took control and the Belgium after ww1

• Belgium favoured the Tutsi minority and created ethnicity cards to differentiate the Hutu majority

• Hutus killed Tutsi after it gained independence

• president of Rwanda was killed when their planes were shot down which led to genocide of 800,000, Hutus fled

Ukraine and Crimea

• Crimea was part of Russian empire

• Germany occupied for part of ww2 but when Russia got it back Stalin exiled the entire population of Crimean Tatars to Uzbekistan for collaborating with Germans

• in 1954 Crimea was transferred to Ukraine

• break up of USSR led to Crimean Tatars returning

• Ukraine agreed to extend Russia’s lease on Sevastopol (a dock) for cheaper gas

• in 2014 Russia seized control of Crimea who voted to join Russia. 850,000 Ukrainians fled Crimea

Taiwan

• has been independent but china still claims sovereignty and regards it as a rebel provinces, insists that other nations should not have official formal relations

• top producer of computer chips

• female president, Tsai Ing-wen is pursuing sovereignty and formal independence but risks antagonising China

nationalism

the belief that the interests of your nation is more important than any other nation

colonialism and neo-colonialism

• european powers exerting power and influence on other countries (1500-1900s)

• neo-colonialism is global powers exerting power and influence on other nations through unfair trade deals and subjugation (keeping others down by forcing through necessities) e.g. Cost-Rica, Ecuador bananas and gold in Africa.

• as well as cultural influence (McDonalds) through americanisation (ww1 onwards)

• Zimbabwe used to be called Rhodesia named after Evil Rhodes, this is an example of Neo-colonialism

British empire

• 1/3 of land mass in world owned

• ¼ of global population

• “vehicle of diffusion of British values, laws and culture”

• generated wealth through extraction of resources from colonies

• founded on communications - telegraph and under sea cables

• strong navy created power and influence

• many former colonies decided to be part of the commonwealth (trade/sport)

why did the colonial period end

• after ww2 uk was bankrupt after fighting ww1/2 and was no longer a superpower. uk had little power and influence

• growing resistance in old colonies e.g. Ghandi in India protested for independence which came in 1947

• global shift meant raw materials were no longer needed for manufacturing so colonies were less important

French Revolution and other examples of nationalism

• helped establish nationalism as a force across Europe removed the absolute power of the French monarchy and replaced it with a federal state ruled by the people with a new legal system

• Theodor Herzl wrote the Der Judenstaat which was influential for the zionist movement

• Simon Boliviar won independence for latin America

vietnam and disintegrating empires

• was a French colony

• vietnam, cambodia and Laos were known as French indochina

• agricultural lands were converted to plantations for rubber, coffee, tea, rice and tabacco for exports to colonial powers

• severe wealth inequality

• gained independence in 1954 after French military was defeated

• vietnam was split into the north with Vietnamese nationalists supported by communist china and the south who were independant non-communist support by US. war ensued and over 4 million people died. south was defeated in 1975

• differences in ideology between communist north and independent non-communist south caused conflict

South Sudan and disintegrating colonies

• at Berlin conference in 1884-5 Sudan was divided into northern and southern territories based on ethnic characteristics

• Britain and Egypt modernised the mainly Arab north leaving the black African south to tribal communities

• people in the south felt left out of Sudans development

• Britains divide and rule policy pitted the sudanese people against each other rather than the colonial ruler

• led to a 4 year civil war, one of Africa’s longest conflicts. tens of thousands have been forced to flee. food supplies were cut off which led to a famine affecting over 1 million people

Washington consensus

1. reduce national budgets deficits

2. redirect spending from politically popular areas toward neglected fields with high economic returns

3. reform the tax system

4. liberalise the financial sector with the goal of market determine interest rates

5. adopt a competitive single exchange rate

6. reduce trade restrictions

7. abolish barriers to foreign direct investment

8. privatise state owned enterprises

9. abolish policies that restrict competition

10. provide secure, affordable property rights

has led to government spending being reduced and as a result taxation is lower now compared their lack of financial regulations with low income tax and low corporation tax. this is designed to attract wealthy individuals and TNCs to register themselves in these tax havens.

reasons to/not to relocate to tax havens

• part of a TNC relocates to reduce the tax bill

• TNCs choose to domicile in tax havens to reduce tax bill

• TNCs look at the rate and whether there is similar political system to origin country, level of development, conflict, locality of resources, laws and regulation, average labour costs and diplomatic relations/trust

• brand authenticity, corporate responsibility, public perception and their current ability to declare profits in low-tax states

• TNCs sometimes look to the national government for support during a financial crisis or when their overseas assets become threatened by conflict or nationalism e.g. Repsol assets were seized by Argentina

• TNCs use the strategy of transfer pricing to reduce their tax burden. this involves routing profits through subsidiary companies owned by the parent company. these will be based in a low-tax state such as Ireland or possibly a tax haven like the Cayman Islands or Seychelles or Monaco. wealthy expatriates try to limit their personal tax liability by migrating to tax havens

examples of tax havens

ireland - accused of giving tax breaks, tax rates are 12% which could undermine Europe

French banks - 5 French banks have 16 branches in the Cayman Islands. 2014 profits were $45 million. discrepancy between profits and activity suggest abuse of tax haven

uk - control 1/3 of tax havens

IGOs

• the League of Nations was established after ww1 however it failed to stop the expansionism of Japan and Germany in the 1930s and failed to prevent ww2.

• after ww2 the UN was established to prevent violations of human rights. the tools include economic sanctions, arms/trade embargoes and freezing assets however they have no hard power methods

• IMF and world bank promote Neo-liberalism and the Washington consensus. aims are to support post war reconstruction in developed countries and loan money for large development projects in developing nations. global interest rates rocketed in 1980s which made loan repayments unaffordable. as debt increased this prevented development and led to structural adjustment programmes with conditions being introduced

• most countries are part of financial IGOs. WTO members accounted for 96.4% of world trade. however there has been an increase in regional trade blocs due to economies of scale and comparative advantage

water in Tanzania

• water services had fallen into disrepair but were still delivering safe water to some of the poorest household

• the world bank insisted that Tanzania should privatise their water services in exchange for a $140 million loan.

• this meant that water bills were introduced and therefore the poorest households could not pay their bills and lost access to clean water. this meant girls began missing school to collect water

• now countries often seek support from emerging superpowers like China and India

global commons

• resources that are located outside of national borders which affect everyone on earth e.g. atmosphere, Antarctica, oceans, space

timeline of environmental protocols

1970 - first ever earth day which aims at raising awareness of and support for environmental protection

1972 - the creation of the UN environmental programme which is responsible for co-ordinating responses to environmental issues

1987 - montreal protocol which phased out CFCs and other chemicals that deplete the ozone layer. was the first global treaty to receive 197 signatories and to have achieved global ratification

1992 - riot earth summit, which produced the first framework on climate change and sustainability

1997 - kyoto protocol, which adopted legally binding goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

2015 - Paris agreement, which aims to limit global warming to below 2 degrees ideally below 1.5 above pre-industrial levels. wasn’t successful because countries could choose their own targets, weren’t legally bound and wouldn’t pay poorest countries

managing antarctica

• 1959 antarctic treaty system was signed by 54 nations which agreed to strict rules that meant its only to be used for scientific research, no military actions, no territorial claims and no exploitation of any resource until 2041

environmental policies

CITES - aims to ensure international trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival. protects over 35,000 species. adopted by 181 countries. enforcement has not been strict enough and rising wealth in china, Indonesia and south Korea has increased illegal trade

water convention - aims to protect the quantity, quality and sustainable use of trans-boundary rivers by promoting co-operation. only 42 nations signed it and dams lead to over-exploitation of rivers and lakes

UNCLOS - signed by 157 countries defining the rights and responsibilities of nations in using oceans. aims to settle disputes and allow conservation however led to increased tensions

MEA - assess consequences of ecosystems changes and actions needed to conserve and use ecosystems sustainable by appraising them and the services they provide up to 1.5% of habitats are cleared annually. extinction rates 100x faster. a financial value is calculated for threatened biomes and species, thereby strengthening rationale for preservation. 70% of world’s known species risk extinction.