AP Psychology Unit 0

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93 Terms

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Psychology

The study of behavior and mental processes of animals and humans

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Critical Thinking

The ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively

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Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; "Oh I knew that was going to happen"

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Overconfidence

Tend to think that we know more than we actually do

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Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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Cultural Norms

The unwritten rules, values, and standards within a society that dictate acceptable behavior

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Hypothesis

An educated guess; what you would expect to get out from an experiment

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Falsifiability

The possibility that a hypothesis can be disproven

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Operational Definition

A precise statement of how a researcher will measure or manipulate a variable in a study

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Why is it important to operationalize within a study?

It transforms abstract ideas into measurable, observable and testable forms

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Reliability

Consistency of a measurement

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Validity

Accuracy of a measurement

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Generalizability

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to a larger population beyond the specific sample studied

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Population

An entire group of individuals

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Sample

A smaller group of individuals that are selected from a population

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Sampling

The act / process of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population

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Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when the sample selected does not accurately represent the larger population

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Convience sampling

Individuals are selected based on how accessible they are; makes it easier fro the resercher

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Representative Sampling

Subset of a population used to reflect the characteristics of the larger group

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Random Sampling

Every member of a population has the same chance of being selected

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Why is it crucial to have a representative sample?

Ensures research findings can be reliably generalized to the entire population

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Qualitative Research

Explores and interprets non-numerical data to understand concepts, experiences and behaviors

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Quantitative Research

Uses numerical data and statistical analysis

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Likert Scale

How strongly you agree or disagree with something (in a survey)

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Self Report Bias

Tendency of individuals to inaccurately report information about themselves

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Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to respond to questions in in ways that presents them in a favorable light

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Peer Review

When other people look and review at your research

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Replication

The process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time

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Why is replication important?

Ensures the reliability and validity of research findings

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What benefit can non-experimental research have within psychological science?

Enables the study of variables that cannot be ethically or practically manipulated

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What limitation does all non-experimental research have?

Lacks manipulation and control

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Case Study

In-depth investigation of an individual or small group

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Case Study: Pros and Cons

Pros: High details of subjects, unique quality / situation

Cons: No correlation data, time consuming, no generalization

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Meta Analysis

Statistical combination of results from two or more separate studies

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Meta Analysis: Pros and Cons

Pros: Accuracy, pose & answer questions

Cons: Applicability

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Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording natural behavior

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Naturalistic Observation: Pros and Cons

Pros: Ecological validity

Cons: No manipulation, potential for subject bias, demand characteristics

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Correlation

the extent to which 2 variables are related

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Correlation: Pros and Cons

Pros: predict behavior

Cons: directionality problem, 3rd variable problem

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Positive Correlation

Two variables both go up

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Negative Correlation

Two variables both go down

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No Correlation

There is no relationship between the two variables

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What is the name of the graphs that show correlation?

Scatterplot

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Correlation Coefficient

Statistical measure that shows the degree of relationships between two variables

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What does correlation coefficient tell us?

Indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables

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What range does a correlation coefficient have?

-1 to +1

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Correlation ≠ Causation

A statistical relationship (correlation) between two variables does not automatically mean one variable causes the other (causation)

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Directionality Problem

The uncertainty about the causal relationship between two correlated variables

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3rd Variable Problem

An undiscovered causative variable

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Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores on a test or measurement to move closer to the average score when the test is repeated

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Illusory Correlation

Perception of a relationship between two variables exist when no such relationship actually exists

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Experiment

A research method where researchers manipulate and independent variable to observe its effects on a dependent variable while controlling other factors

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Control Group

A set of participants in a research study who do not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation being studied

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Experimental Group

A group of participants in a study who receive the experimental treatment that is being studied on

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Independent Variable

The experimental factor that a researcher directly manipulates, changes, or controls to observe its effects on another variable

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Dependent Variable

The factor that is measured and may change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable, representing the effect or outcome of the experiment

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Placebo

A substance or procedure that is given to a participant in a research study as a control condition

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Why would an experiment need to use a placebo?

It enables researchers to determine the specific effects of a particular treatment

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Placebo Effect

A phenomenon in psychology where a person experiences an improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment

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What negative effects can a placebo have?

Nausea, fatigue or headaches

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Confounding Variable

An external, unplanned factor that influences the relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable

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Random Assignment

Experimental technique where participants are randomly placed into different groups using a chance procedure

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How is random assignment different from random sampling?

Random sampling refers to how you select individuals from a population to participate in a study while random assignment refers to how you place those participants into groups

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What is the purpose of random assignment?

To ensure the participants in an experiment have an equal chance of being placed in any study groups

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Participant Bias

The tendency for participants to respond or behave in a way that deviates from their true feelings or natural responses; social desirability bias

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Experimenter Bias

When researchers unconsciously influence their experimenters results based on their expectations or preferences

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Single Blind

Only participants are unaware of which experimental condition they are assigned to

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Double Blind

Where both researcher and participant are unaware of which experimental condition they are assigned to

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Descriptive Statistics

Methods used to summarize, organize and describe the characteristics of a specific dataset

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Inferential Statistics

Used to draw conclusions about a population based on data collected from a sample

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Mean

Average number; add up all and divide by the amount of numbers given

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Median

Middle value arranged in ascending order

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Mode

Most frequent value

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Which measure of central tendency is most impacted by outliers?

Mean

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Range

Difference between highest number and lowest number

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Standard Deviation

A statistical measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values in a dataset relative to its mean

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Normal Curve

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Percentile Rank

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Bell Curve - Negative Skew

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Bell Curve - Positive Skew

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Bimodal Distribution

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What factors influence whether data can be generalized?

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Statistical Significance

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Effect Size

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What limitations and benefits does the laboratory setting have for research?

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Institutional Review

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Informed Consent

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Informed Assent

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Protection From Harm

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Confidentiality

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Debriefing

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Deception

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Confederate