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Psychology
The study of behavior and mental processes of animals and humans
Critical Thinking
The ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; "Oh I knew that was going to happen"
Overconfidence
Tend to think that we know more than we actually do
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Cultural Norms
The unwritten rules, values, and standards within a society that dictate acceptable behavior
Hypothesis
An educated guess; what you would expect to get out from an experiment
Falsifiability
The possibility that a hypothesis can be disproven
Operational Definition
A precise statement of how a researcher will measure or manipulate a variable in a study
Why is it important to operationalize within a study?
It transforms abstract ideas into measurable, observable and testable forms
Reliability
Consistency of a measurement
Validity
Accuracy of a measurement
Generalizability
The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to a larger population beyond the specific sample studied
Population
An entire group of individuals
Sample
A smaller group of individuals that are selected from a population
Sampling
The act / process of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population
Sampling Bias
A bias that occurs when the sample selected does not accurately represent the larger population
Convience sampling
Individuals are selected based on how accessible they are; makes it easier fro the resercher
Representative Sampling
Subset of a population used to reflect the characteristics of the larger group
Random Sampling
Every member of a population has the same chance of being selected
Why is it crucial to have a representative sample?
Ensures research findings can be reliably generalized to the entire population
Qualitative Research
Explores and interprets non-numerical data to understand concepts, experiences and behaviors
Quantitative Research
Uses numerical data and statistical analysis
Likert Scale
How strongly you agree or disagree with something (in a survey)
Self Report Bias
Tendency of individuals to inaccurately report information about themselves
Social Desirability Bias
The tendency to respond to questions in in ways that presents them in a favorable light
Peer Review
When other people look and review at your research
Replication
The process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time
Why is replication important?
Ensures the reliability and validity of research findings
What benefit can non-experimental research have within psychological science?
Enables the study of variables that cannot be ethically or practically manipulated
What limitation does all non-experimental research have?
Lacks manipulation and control
Case Study
In-depth investigation of an individual or small group
Case Study: Pros and Cons
Pros: High details of subjects, unique quality / situation
Cons: No correlation data, time consuming, no generalization
Meta Analysis
Statistical combination of results from two or more separate studies
Meta Analysis: Pros and Cons
Pros: Accuracy, pose & answer questions
Cons: Applicability
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording natural behavior
Naturalistic Observation: Pros and Cons
Pros: Ecological validity
Cons: No manipulation, potential for subject bias, demand characteristics
Correlation
the extent to which 2 variables are related
Correlation: Pros and Cons
Pros: predict behavior
Cons: directionality problem, 3rd variable problem
Positive Correlation
Two variables both go up
Negative Correlation
Two variables both go down
No Correlation
There is no relationship between the two variables
What is the name of the graphs that show correlation?
Scatterplot
Correlation Coefficient
Statistical measure that shows the degree of relationships between two variables
What does correlation coefficient tell us?
Indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables
What range does a correlation coefficient have?
-1 to +1
Correlation ≠ Causation
A statistical relationship (correlation) between two variables does not automatically mean one variable causes the other (causation)
Directionality Problem
The uncertainty about the causal relationship between two correlated variables
3rd Variable Problem
An undiscovered causative variable
Regression Toward the Mean
The tendency for extreme scores on a test or measurement to move closer to the average score when the test is repeated
Illusory Correlation
Perception of a relationship between two variables exist when no such relationship actually exists
Experiment
A research method where researchers manipulate and independent variable to observe its effects on a dependent variable while controlling other factors
Control Group
A set of participants in a research study who do not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation being studied
Experimental Group
A group of participants in a study who receive the experimental treatment that is being studied on
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that a researcher directly manipulates, changes, or controls to observe its effects on another variable
Dependent Variable
The factor that is measured and may change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable, representing the effect or outcome of the experiment
Placebo
A substance or procedure that is given to a participant in a research study as a control condition
Why would an experiment need to use a placebo?
It enables researchers to determine the specific effects of a particular treatment
Placebo Effect
A phenomenon in psychology where a person experiences an improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment
What negative effects can a placebo have?
Nausea, fatigue or headaches
Confounding Variable
An external, unplanned factor that influences the relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable
Random Assignment
Experimental technique where participants are randomly placed into different groups using a chance procedure
How is random assignment different from random sampling?
Random sampling refers to how you select individuals from a population to participate in a study while random assignment refers to how you place those participants into groups
What is the purpose of random assignment?
To ensure the participants in an experiment have an equal chance of being placed in any study groups
Participant Bias
The tendency for participants to respond or behave in a way that deviates from their true feelings or natural responses; social desirability bias
Experimenter Bias
When researchers unconsciously influence their experimenters results based on their expectations or preferences
Single Blind
Only participants are unaware of which experimental condition they are assigned to
Double Blind
Where both researcher and participant are unaware of which experimental condition they are assigned to
Descriptive Statistics
Methods used to summarize, organize and describe the characteristics of a specific dataset
Inferential Statistics
Used to draw conclusions about a population based on data collected from a sample
Mean
Average number; add up all and divide by the amount of numbers given
Median
Middle value arranged in ascending order
Mode
Most frequent value
Which measure of central tendency is most impacted by outliers?
Mean
Range
Difference between highest number and lowest number
Standard Deviation
A statistical measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values in a dataset relative to its mean
Normal Curve
Percentile Rank
Bell Curve - Negative Skew
Bell Curve - Positive Skew
Bimodal Distribution
What factors influence whether data can be generalized?
Statistical Significance
Effect Size
What limitations and benefits does the laboratory setting have for research?
Institutional Review
Informed Consent
Informed Assent
Protection From Harm
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Deception
Confederate