Anatomy Exam #1

anatomy

the study of structure

physiology

the study of function

hierarchy of organization

1. Molecules are composed of atoms

2. Organelles are composed of molecules

3. Cells are composed partly of organelles

4. Tissues are composed of cells

5. Organs are composed of tissues

6. Organ systems are composed of organs

7. The organism is composed of organ systems

Hippocrates

• “Father of medicine”, Greek physician

• Attributed disease to natural causes (naturalism)

• Can discover underlying order to world via rational inquiry (rationalism)

Claudius Galen

• the founder of the study of anatomy

• was not allowed much access to human bodies (many errors in his descriptions)

• he couldn’t cut humans open, so he cut animals instead and used them for the basis of human anatomy

Andreas Vesalius

• did his own dissections and noticed the errors that Galen made

• produced the first great anatomical drawings

William Harvey

• studied blood flow through the body (predicted the presence of capillaries)

• first to describe pulmonary circulation and that blood flows in a circular motion

Robert Hooke

• made great improvements of the microscope

• designed the first stages/controls

• first to name/see cells

Aristotle

• First marine biologist

• Greatest contributor to understanding of natural world at the time

• Natural historian, founder of comparative method

• Coined terms “physician” and “physiology”

• Hypothesized that kidneys clear waste from blood

Features of phylum chordata

• Notochord

• Dorsal hollow nerve cord

• Pharyngeal slits

• Postanal tail

• Endostyle

Notochord is ____ in humans

intervertebral discs

dorsal hollow nerve cord is _____ in humans

spinal cord

Pharyngeal slits is ______ in humans

a fetal feature that goes away

postanal tail is ______ in humans

coccyx

endostyle is _________ in humans

thyroid gland

function of the endostyle

secretes mucus for trapping food

features in subphylum vertebrata

• Faster moving/more active

• Have increasingly large brains

• Presence of a cranium

• Bony or cartilaginous endoskeleton (grows with the animal) (sharks/rays)

• Presence of a vertebral column

features in class mammalia

• Hair

• Mammary glands (produces milk)

• Endothermy (warm-blooded)

the protein in hair is ______

• keratin - used for warmth, thermoregulation, and camouflage

features in order primates

• Color vision

• Arboreal (evolved in the trees)

• Opposable thumb + big toe

radiography

the process of photographing internal structures with x-rays

CT scan

• more sophisticated application of x-rays

• patient is moved through a ring-shape machine with low intensity x-rays on one side and receives them with a detector on the opposite side

• produces an image of a “slice of the body”

MRI

• better for visualizing soft tissues

• patient lies in a tube or an open-sided scanner surrounded by a powerful electromagnet

• uses magnets and radio waves

fMRI

• visualizes moment to moment changes in tissue function

• most important method for visualizing brain function

PET scan

• assesses the metabolic state of a tissue and distinguishes what tissues are most active at a given moment

• begins with an injection of radioactively labeled glucose, which emits positrons

• displays a colored image that shows which tissues were using the most glucose at that moment

• it can show cellular-level changes and issues with oxygen use, glucose metabolism and BLOOD FLOW that reveal medical problems at a very early stage

sonography

• uses sound waves

• second oldest/widely used

• a handheld device is pressed on the skin to produce high frequency ultrasound waves and receives the signals that echo back from internal organs

homeostasis

 The body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Claude Bernard

a physiologist that observed that the human body’s internal conditions remain quite constant, even when external conditions vary greatly

Walter Cannon

• coined the term homeostasis

• early work on fight or flight (ANS)

dynamic equilibrium

• internal state of the body (balanced change) in which there is a set point for a certain value and the bodily conditions slightly fluctuate around it

negative feedback

the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it

• examples include body temperature, blood glucose, blood pressure, heart rate, etc.

receptor

this is what senses the change in the body

integrating center

this is what processes the information, relates it to other available information, and makes a decision about what the response should be

effector

this is what carries out the final corrective action

positive feedback

the physiological change leads to an even greater change in the same direction

• examples include giving birth and blood clots

cell theory of life

• All living organisms are made of one or more cells

• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms

• All activities of an organism stem from the activities of its constituent cells

• All cells arise from preexisting cells and pass hereditary info from generation to generation of cells

down a gradient

releasing energy

up a gradient

expending energy

reductionism

studying simpler and specific components

holism

looking at properties of the whole organism

filtration

• particles are driven through the membrane by hydrostatic pressure

• very important in blood capillaries

• passive transport because no energy is used

• things are being squeezed out of the capillaries

simple diffusion

• movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

• no energy is used

• factors that affect this diffusion include temperature, weight, surface area, permeability, and the steepness of the gradient

osmosis

• net flow of water from one side of the selectively permeable membrane to the other

• helps the cells to maintain proper osmotic pressure

osmotic pressure

the pressure exerted by water as it diffuses in or out of the cells

aquaporins

• channel proteins that water passes through

• these are specialized for water

membrane lipids

• 98% of the membrane molecules are lipids (75% of those are phospholipids)

• Arranged in a sandwich like bilayer, with the hydrophilic heads facing the water on each side and the hydrophobic tails facing towards the center away from the water

membrane phospholipids

• (75% of those are phospholipids)

• drift laterally from place to place, spin on their axes, and flex their tails to keep the membrane fluid

cholesterol

• about 20% of the membrane lipids and are on the surface

• stiffens the membrane (makes it less fluid) by interacting with the phospholipids and keeping them still

glycolipids

• the remaining 5% of lipids

• phospholipids with short carbohydrate chains on the extracellular side of the membrane

membrane proteins

• only 2% of the membrane, but they are larger than lipids and average about 50% of the membrane by weight

transmembrane proteins

• Pass completely through the phospholipid bilayer, protruding from both sides

• They have both hydrophilic regions in contact with the water on both side and hydrophobic regions that pass back and forth through the lipid

• Most of these are glycoproteins

• majority drift freely in the phospholipid film, but others are anchored to the cytoskeleton

peripheral proteins

• Does not protrude into the phospholipid bilayer, but adheres to either the interface or outerface of the membrane

• Those on the interface are usually anchored to a transmembrane protein as well as the cytoskeleton

nucleus

houses the DNA, it is the control center

ribosomes

site of protein synthesis (can be found freely floating or on the rough ER)

endoplasmic reticulum

involved in making proteins (rough and smooth)

Golgi complex

packing + exporting proteins from the ER

mitochondria

generates ATP through cell respiration

lysosomes

fuses with vesicles and transports them out

peroxisomes

chemically breaks down toxins

receptor proteins

• cell communication

• signals the cell to do something

enzyme proteins

• helps carry out the final stages of starch and protein digestion, produce second messengers, and breaking down hormones

channel proteins

• allows ions + small molecules in/out of the cell

• just an opening that lets stuff pass through

carrier proteins

• grabs molecules and moves them across a membrane

cell-identity markers

distinguishing its own cells from foreign cells (glycoproteins)

second messenger proteins

the mechanisms manipulated by drugs that we take (G protein cascade)

glycocalyx

• a fuzzy coat that is external to the plasma membrane

• it is chemically unique in everyone except identical twins

• allows the body to identify its own cells from transplanted tissues, invading organisms, and diseased cells

microvilli

• serves primarily to increase the cell’s surface area for absorption

• made of actin

• you will see this in small intestines

• more space to move things in/out of the cell

• supported by protein fibers (actin filaments)

cilia + flagells

• hairlike processes

• made of tubulin

• 9+2 arrangement

• motile, moves objects (mucus)

• these are supported by the protein tubular in microtubules

• flagella are long, cilia are short

pseudopods

• pieces of the cell extending forward

• common in white blood cells

• they change continually

hypotonic solution

• has a lower concentration of solutes outside of the cell than the ICF

• the cell absorbs the water, swells, and may burst

hypertonic

• has a higher solute concentration on the outside than the ICF

• causes the cell to lose water and shrivel up

primary active transport

• carrier moves a substance through a cell membrane up its concentration gradient using energy provided by ATP

• example is the sodium potassium pump

secondary active transport

• does require an energy input, but depends indirectly on ATP

endocytosis

bringing matter into the cell

exostosis

releasing material from the cell

phagocytosis

• cell-eating

• process of engulfing particles such as bacteria, dust, and cell debris (larger particles)

• membrane needs to be fluid so it can move around and engulf things

• occurs only in a few specialized cells

pinocytosis

• cell-drinking

• occurs only in human cells

• takes in droplets of the ECF containing molecules that are of some use to the cell

receptor-mediated endocytosis

• proteins bind to something specific and bring it into the cell

• a more selective form of phagocytosis or pinocytosis

• an example of when this is used is for familial hypercholesterolemia

facilitated diffusion

• passive process/carrier mediated transport

• often moves glucose down a concentration gradient

• molecule specific

• often there are membrane proteins that move glucose

active transport

• moves molecules against a concentration gradient

• requires ATP

• also carrier mediated transport

• example is the sodium potassium pump

microfilaments

• made of the protein actin

• supports the microvilli (plays a role in cell movement)

• under the plasma membrane

• thin filaments

• widespread throughout the cell but especially located on the terminal web

intermediate filaments

• made of keratin

• structurally supported by the cell

• desmosomes use this

• thicker and stiffer than microfilaments

• gives the cell its shape, resists stress, and forms junctions that attach cells to their neighbors

microtubules

• made of tubulin

• supports the cilia and flagella

• radiates from the centrosome

• holds organelles in place, form bundles that maintain cell shape/ridgidity, and acts as a train track for proteins carrying organelles/molecules to specific places in the cell

matrix

• extracellular material

• composed of fibrous proteins

• has a clear gel known as ground substance, tissue fluid, ECF, or interstitial fluid

tight junction

• completely encircles an epithelial cell near its apical surface and joins it tightly to neighboring cells

• adhesion proteins use these

• makes it impossible or very difficult for substances to pass between cells

desmosomes

• a patch that somewhat holds cells together

• are not continuous and can’t stop substances from going around and passing between the cells

• they use intermediate filaments

• has j-shaped proteins

gap junctions

• formed by a connexon

• produces gaps/pathways between the two cells

• found in cardiac muscle

• ions, glucose, amino acids can pass directly from the cytoplasm from one cell into the next through the channel

gland

any cell or organ that produces a secretion

• mostly epithelial tissue, but usually have a supportive connective tissue framework and capsule

skeletal muscle

• striated (actin and myosin)

• voluntary

• multinucleated

• long cylindrical cells

cardiac muscle

• makes up the heart

• involuntary

• striated, but they’re branched

• has intercalated discs

smooth muscle

• involuntary

• surrounds intestines and stomach

• no striations

endocrine gland

secretion enters the bloodstream

exocrine gland

secretions empty out of ducts (sweat glands) onto surface of skin or cavity of organ (glands who secrete fluid into our stomach)

merocrine gland

• released by exocytosis

• sweat glands, tear glands, pancreas

holocrine glands

• doesn’t use exocytosis, the cell instead disintegrates and releases the secretion that way

• very oily (glands of scalp)

apocrine gland

• actually a type of merocrine gland

• packaged up into a bit of the plasma membrane and released that way

• in between the other two

• sweat glands and mammary glands

ground substance

• clear gel fluid in the matrix

• contains water, gases, minerals, nutrients, waste, and hormones

• this is the median where cells obtain what they need and get rid of what they don’t

basement membrane

between the epithelium and connective tissue

• contains collagen

• anchors the epithelial tissue to the connective tissue

• controls the exchange of materials

apical surface

faces toward the body surface or the internal cavity of an organ

basal surface

faces the basement membrane