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Ambulation
Ancestral mammalian locomotion; walking on limbs in contact with ground.
Appendicular skeleton
Bones of forelimbs and hindlimbs plus their girdles.
Atlas
First cervical vertebra; articulates with skull and axis; enabling head nodding.
Axis
Second cervical vertebra; allows head rotation.
Caudal vertebrae
Vertebrae forming the tail (3-50, variable among mammals)
Cervical vertebrae
Neck vertebrae; typically 7 in mammals.
Claw
keratinized unguis covering terminal bone, supported by subunguis and pad.
Digitigrade
Walking on digits (toes); increases stride length (e.g., cats and dogs).
Endurance
Ability to sustain activity over time; locomotor trade-off trait.
Fulcrum
Pivot point of a lever; in the skeleton, a joint.
Keratin
Tough protein forming protective structures like hair, nails, claws, and hooves.
Lever
Rigid bar that rotates around a fulcrum; in animals, a bone.
Lumbar vertebrae
Vertebrae between thoracic and sacral regions; specialized for sagittal flexion/extension.
Mechanical advantage (r/L)
Ratio of in-lever (muscle attachment) to out-lever (load distance): determines speed versus strength.
Muscle insertion
Site where muscle attaches to bone and applies force.
Pad
Soft tissue at end of digit, providing cushion and traction.
Parasagittal plane
Plane parallel to the body's sagittal axis; upright mammals limbs move within this plane.
Pelvic girdle
Hip bones connecting hindlimbs to axial skeleton.
Pectoral girdle
Scapula & clavicle, connecting forelimbs to axial skeleton.
Plantigrade
Walking with entire foot on the ground (e.g., humans, bears).
Sacrum
Fused sacral vertebrae linking pelvis to spine; transfers hindlimb force to trunk.
Sagittal flexion/extension
Bending movement forward and backward in the sagittal plane.
Stability
Resistance to tipping or toppling; locomotor trade-off trait.
Strength
Capacity to exert high force; locomotor trade-off trait.
Subunguis
Softer keratin layer beneath unguis; blends with pad.
Thoracic vertebrae
Vertebrae articulating with ribs; form rib cage; limited flexibility.
Torque
Rotational force; product of muscle x lever arm strength.
Unguis
Hard keratinized sheath covering the tip of a claw, nail, or hoof.
Unguligrade
Walking on the tips of digits (hooves); extreme cursorial adaptation.