General Psychology Final (New Material)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A theory in psychology that suggests human needs are arranged in a hierarchical order. The five levels, from lowest to highest, are:

• Physiological needs (food, water, shelter)

• Safety needs (security, employment, resources)

• Love and belonging (relationships, friends, social groups)

• Esteem needs (self-esteem, respect from others)

• Self-actualization (achieving one’s full potential)

Self-Actualization

The realization of one's potential and capabilities (best version of ourselves). It represents the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy, where individuals achieve personal growth, creativity, and fulfillment

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

This theory suggests that emotions are the result of physiological reactions to external stimuli ; we feel emotions because we experience bodily reactions (e.g., heart racing) first, and then interpret them as specific emotions (e.g., fear)

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

This theory suggests that emotional experiences and physiological reactions occur simultaneously but independently, meaning that we feel emotions and experience bodily changes at the same time

Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

This theory suggests that emotion results from the interaction between physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation ; Physiological arousal → Interpretation → Emotion (e.g., “I’m trembling because I’m scared”)

Angry/Happy Man Study (Schachter & Singer, 1962)

Participants were injected with epinephrine (placebo) and either told the true purpose of the injection or misinformed. Those who were misinformed about the effects of the drug were more likely to attribute their physiological arousal (increased heart rate, shaking) to the emotional context they were placed in (angry or happy confederate), supporting the idea that arousal and cognition together determine emotion

Misattribution of Arousal

The process by which individuals incorrectly identify the source of their physiological arousal, often leading to misinterpretation of their emotional state

Dutton and Aron’s (1974) Study

In their study on the "wobbly bridge," male participants were more likely to contact an attractive female researcher when they experienced heightened arousal from crossing a shaky, high bridge. This supports the idea that arousal (from fear) can be misattributed to sexual attraction

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences. For example, smiling can actually make people feel happier

Internal (Dispositional) Attributions

The process of explaining behavior based on their personal characteristics (e.g. personality traits, attitudes, beliefs, or motives) more favored

 External (Situational) Attribution

The process of explaining behavior in terms of the environment or external circumstances (better relationships)

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors (personality) and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior

Jones and Harris’s (1967) Study

In this study, participants read essays either supporting or opposing Fidel Castro. Despite being told that the authors had no choice in the position they expressed, participants still attributed the position to the authors' personal beliefs, demonstrating the fundamental attribution error

Actor-Observer Effect

The tendency to attribute our own behavior to external factors (situations), but others' behavior to internal factors (personality)

Self-Serving Attribution

The tendency to attribute successes/positive outcome to internal factors (e.g., personal ability) and failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck)

Social Roles and Behavior

Behavior that is expected of a person who is in a specific social position (e.g. student, teacher)

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

A 1971 study where participants assigned to the role of guards or prisoners rapidly adopted their roles, with guards displaying abusive behavior, showing how powerful social roles can shape behavior

Cognitive Dissonance

An unpleasant psychological state experienced when holding two conflicting beliefs/attitudes or when behavior conflicts with beliefs. People are motivated to reduce this discomfort

Factors Involved in Cognitive Dissonance

1. Counterattitudinal behavior

2. Insufficient Justification

3. Choice

4. Effort

Counterattitudinal Behavior

Behavior that is inconsistent with person’s beliefs/attitudes 

Insufficient Justification

When individuals have little external justification for their behavior, they are more likely to change their attitudes to match their behavior (may develop more positive attitudes toward the behavior)

Choice

Having free will in a decision-making process can lead to dissonance if the outcome is undesirable

Effort

Greater effort leads to greater commitment, which can cause dissonance if the effort does not lead to a desirable outcome

Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) Study

Subjects paid either $1 or $20 to do boring task and lie, telling next subject that it was fun

• Participants who were paid $1 to lie rated the task as more enjoyable than those paid $20. The $1 group experienced greater cognitive dissonance and therefore changed their attitudes to justify the lie.

Normative social influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted by others

Informational social influence

Conforming because we believe others' information is accurate, desire to be correct

Asch’s Study of Conformity

Participants asked to judge which comparison line best matched the standard line 

• Confederates unanimously chose incorrect line → 75% participants conformed to the incorrect group at least once (demonstrating normative social influence)

Milgram’s Study of Obedience

Participants served as “teachers” - instructed to inflict shocks (fake) of increasing intensity on “learner” (confederate)

• About 65% of participants continued to administer potentially lethal shocks to the "learner" even after they stopped responding. This demonstrated the power of authority figures in influencing obedience.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone

Deindividuation

A psychological state where individuals in groups feel anonymous and less accountable, leading to behaviors they might not otherwise engage in (reduced self-awareness and social identity).

Group Polarization

The tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions than do individuals alone

Groupthink

The tendency in group decision making which members assume their decision will be correct, which can lead to poor decision-making (collective state of mind).

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people

Stereotyping

A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group 

Discrimination

Differential actions toward members of specific social groups 

Explicit Prejudice

Conscious prejudice that can be overtly express

Implicit Prejudice

Unconscious prejudice that the individual may not be aware of an/or cannot overtly express 

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A test that measures the strength of associations between concepts (e.g., race) and evaluations (e.g., good or bad) to assess implicit prejudice

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve ; lead to victim-blaming

Realistic Conflict Theory

Idea that competition for limited resources leads to conflict between groups and results in increased prejudice and discrimination

Sherif’s Robber’s Cave Experiment

A study where boys in a summer camp were divided into two groups, leading to intergroup conflict. The experiment showed that cooperation toward a common goal can reduce prejudice

Social Identity Theory

The theory that people derive part of their identity from the groups to which they belong, leading to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination

In-Group Bias

The tendency to favor one's own group over others

Minimal Groups

Groups formed by trivial similarities 

Minimal group experiment (Tajfel, 1971)

Study where participants favored members of their own "minimal" group when distributing rewards despite randomly assigned, showing how easily in-group bias can occur

Categorization

Our brains automatically classify information into categories - categorizing people into groups since we tend to overgeneralize characteristics based on group membership

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to notice and remember events that are consistent with our existing beliefs/stereotypes while ignoring info that contradicts them 

Contact Hypothesis

The idea that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice, but its effectiveness depends on conditions like equal status and cooperation

Cooperative Interdependence

When individuals or groups work together toward a common goal, reducing prejudice and promoting positive intergroup relations

Robber’s Cave Study

Sherif introduced superordinate goals, which are shared goals that require both groups to cooperate with each other, effectively forcing them to work together to solve problems that neither group could solve alone to reduce prejudice

Jigsaw Classroom

An educational approach where students from different backgrounds must cooperate to complete a task, promoting cooperation, eliminating competition and reducing prejudice

Drive Theory of Aggression

Aggression results from situations that stimulate internal motive to harm others 

Catharsis

The notion that expressing aggression or watching others engage in aggressive behaviors reduces aggressive drive (not supported) 

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Theory that frustration increases probability of aggressive behavior 

Similarity in Liking

People tend to like others who are similar to them

• “Birds of a feather flock together”

Proximity in Liking

People tend to like others who are physically close by

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to increased liking.

• When students rated faces they were shown multiple times as more attractive

Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help a stranger in an emergency when others are present

Why does Bystander Effect Occur?

1. Diffusion of Responsibility

2. Pluralistic ignorance

3. Evaluation apprehension

Diffusion of Responsibility

People feel less personally responsibility when others are present

Pluralistic Ignorance

Bystanders assume nothing is wrong in an emergency because other bystanders don’t appear concerned

Evaluation Apprehension

People concerned of being judged if they act inappropriately (social approval)

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Developed by Freud, this perspective emphasizes the role of unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and inner conflicts in shaping personality

Unconscious

The part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not accessible to conscious awareness but influence behavior

Freud’s model of personality

Id, Ego, Superego

Id

The unconscious, primitive part of the mind that seeks pleasure and avoids pain (based on the pleasure principle)

•  Sexual desires, hunger, aggression

Ego

The rational part that deals with reality and tries to fulfill the id’s desires in socially acceptable ways (based on the reality principle)

• Waiting if hungry instead of snatching someone else’s food

Superego

The moral component that strives for perfection and judges actions as right or wrong

• Feeling of guilt

Freud Psychosexual Stages

Theory of personality development reflecting conflict between child’s desire for pleasure and social expectations 

• Oral

• Anal

• Phallic

Oral Stage

Focus on mouth (e.g., sucking, biting) during birth - 18 months

Anal Stage

Focus on bowel movement (potty training) & attitudes on order and disorder at 18 months - 3 yrs

Phallic Stage

Focus on genitals; includes the Oedipus complex during early childhood (3-6)

Oral and Anal Fixations

Fixations occur if conflicts in the oral or anal stages are not resolved (stuck)

• an oral fixation could result in behaviors like smoking or overeating if not feed when hungry or feed too much (not fully developed dependence/trust) 

• an anal fixation might lead to obsessiveness or stubbornness

Oedipus Complex

A Freudian concept where a boy develops unconscious sexual feelings, desiring a relationship with his mother and jealousy toward his father

What are Freud’s Defense Mechanisms?

1. Repression

2. Projection

3. Rationalization

4. Displacement

5. Denial

Repression

Blocking anxiety-provoking thoughts from consciousness

Projection

Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings/impulses to others

• Romantic partner will be unfaithful but then believe their partner is unfaithful

Rationalization

Offering logical explanations for behaviors to justify them

• Failing a class

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a safer & easier target

Denial

Refusing to acknowledge harsh realities or emotions 

Psychological Determinism

All thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are determined by the unconscious

 Freudian Slips

Unconscious thoughts that come out are meant to say rather than an accident/mistake 

• e.g. if miss spoke something or pronouncing name incorrectly = meant

Projective Tests

Psychological tests designed to reveal unconscious feelings by analyzing responses to ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test)

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective test where individuals interpret inkblot images, revealing unconscious thoughts and emotions

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people created by Abraham Maslow

Roger’s Concept of Empathy

The ability to understand and share another person’s experiences cognitively and emotionally 

Roger’s Concept of Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting and supporting someone regardless of their behavior or feelings

• e.g. Values of someone’s parents

Big Five Traits

A model of personality (OCEAN)

• Openness to experience - imaginative, witty

• Conscientiousness - cautious, dependable

• Extraversion - enthusiastic, sociable 

• Agreeableness - friendly, cooperative 

• Neuroticism - nervous, worrying 

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

A manual used to make clinical diagnoses

• Current - DSM-5-TR (2022)

Labeling Theory

Suggests that psychiatric diagnoses can lead to stigma and social consequences, as demonstrated in Rosenhan’s study

Rosenhan’s Study

Study where participants who were actually health were misdiagnosed as mentally ill since they faked symptoms of schizophrenia

Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD)

Global, chronic, persistent worry about everyday events

• Constant sense of tension and “free-floating anxiety

Panic Disorder

Recurrent panic attacks, sudden attacks of extreme fear

Phobias

Irrational fear of a specific object or situation

• e.g. fear of flying

Social Anxiety Disorder

Intense fear of being in social or performance situation 

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Characterized by persistent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions).

Obsessions

Persistent thoughts

Compulsion

Behaviors that must be performed

Major Depressive Disorder

Feelings of extreme sadness, emptiness;  thoughts of hopelessness

Bipolar Disorder

Extreme mood swings - alternating between depression and mania