AP Psychology Unit 3 PART A (Modules 3.1-3.6b SKIP 3.5)

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan.

stability and change across lifespan

refers to the idea that while some aspects of a person's personality, behavior, or cognitive abilities may remain relatively consistent throughout their life (stability)

other aspects can significantly change depending on life experiences and development stages (change)

nature and nurture

______ refers to how genetics influence an individual's personality, whereas _______ refers to how their environment (including relationships and experiences) impacts their development

continuous

the idea that a person's mental life remains connected over time, even as their personality, experiences, or body change

discontinuous

the theory that human development occurs in distinct stages, with qualitative leaps between each phase, rather than a gradual, continuous process

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

fine motor coordination

the ability to control and coordinate muscles of the hand for precise movements

gross motor coordination

abilities that let us do tasks that involve large muscles in our torso, legs, and arms

physical development and maturation

the process by which individuals grow and develop physically over time, including changes in body size, shape, and functioning

rooting (infant reflexes)

When the corner of a baby's mouth is touched, they turn their head and open their mouth to find food.

sucking (infant reflexes)

When the roof of a baby's mouth is touched, they begin to suck. This reflex is present even after feeding.

grasping (infant reflexes)

When a finger is placed in a baby's open palm, they close their hand around it.

moro (infant reflexes)

falling feeling, stretching out all limbs so they can grab onto something

visual cliff

a laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants and young animals. Researchers observe whether the infant hesitates or refuses to cross the 'cliff,' which indicates their understanding of depth perception and ability to gauge risk in their environment.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.

gender

in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex. (See also gender identity.)

intersex

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in females and males. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty.

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

spermarche [sper-MAR-key]

the first ejaculation.

menarche [meh-NAR-key]

the first menstrual period.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women.

sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault.

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

androgyny

blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics.

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-assigned sex.

sexuality

our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to another.

asexual

having no sexual attraction toward others.

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

sexual orientation

according to the APA (2015), “a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.”

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodation (in developmental psychology)

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events.

formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

scaffold

in Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states — about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation.

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed.

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return.

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or reunited with caregivers.

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

intimacy

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

gender stereotype

a generalized and simplified belief about the characteristics and behaviors that are considered normal for specific genders.

estrogen

________ is one of the primary female sex hormones, along with testosterone. Estrogen is also produced in the male brain, where it can have different effects than in the female brain. 

testosterone

present in both sexes, but it plays a more significant role in the life of a male. It's responsible for the development of male reproductive tissues, as well as secondary sexual characteristics like increased muscle and bone mass. 

Piaget’s Theory

children progress through distinct stages of intellectual development, where they actively construct their understanding of the world through interactions with their environment, marked by key concepts like assimilation and accommodation, and characterized by four main stages: sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), preoperational (2 to 7 years), concrete operational (7 to 11 years), and formal operational (12 years and beyond)

mental symbols

hypothetical internal symbols that make up mental representations. Mental representations are the mental imagery of things that are not present to the senses. 

pretend play

refers to a form of play where children use their imagination to create scenarios and roles, often mimicking real-life situations, by assigning symbolic meaning to objects and actions, essentially "pretending" to be someone or something else;

animism

refers to the belief that inanimate objects possess lifelike qualities, such as feelings, intentions, or thoughts, essentially perceiving non-living things as if they were alive

fluid intelligence

refers to the ability to solve new problems and reason abstractly in novel situations, without relying on previously learned knowledge or experience

crystallized intelligence

the accumulated knowledge, skills, and understanding that a person has acquired throughout their life

dementia

a syndrome characterized by a significant decline in cognitive functions like memory, reasoning, and language, severe enough to interfere with daily life activities, often caused by various underlying brain diseases like Alzheimer's disease

ecological systems theory

refers to a framework that explains how an individual's development is influenced by various interconnected environmental systems

microsystem

groups that have direct contact (home school)

mesosystem

relationships between microsystem groups (parents-peers)

macrosystem

cultural influences (traditions, religion)

exosystem

factors that affect us indirectly (parent’s work)

chronosystem

current stage of life (moving, new career)

authoritarian

low warmth, high control; “because I said so”; discipline and punishments

authoritative

high warmth, high control; wants a relationship; has rules but explains why they exist

permissive

high warmth, low control; more of a friend than a parent, rarely gives guidance or punishments

seperation anxiety

causes children to experience extreme worry when separated from loved ones. It's characterized by excessive concern, worry, and dread of being separated from an attachment figure. 

contact comfort vs. food (Harlow’s study)

cloth mother vs. only food mother. monkey goes to only cloth more when scared or frightened

adolescent egocentrism

cognitive bias where teenagers tend to view the world primarily from their own perspective, believing their thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique and not fully understood by others, often leading them to feel like they are the center of attention

imaginary audience

here a person believes that others are constantly watching or listening to them. It's a part of adolescent egocentrism, which is the lack of differentiation between the ego and the external world. 

personal fable

A belief that they are unique and special, and that they are immune to the problems and difficulties of life

psychosocial stages (erik erikson)

the process of personality development and learning social skills, which is influenced by social and cultural factors throughout a person's life

mistrust

a lack of confidence or faith in others that can lead to a view of others as untrustworthy or unreliable. It can be based on instinct or gut feeling, rather than experience (first step in erik erikson’s theory)

autonomy vs. shame vs. doubt

where a child is learning to be independent and make their own choices, developing a sense of autonomy

alternatively, feeling shame and doubt if they are overly restricted or criticized for their attempts at independence

typically occurs during toddlerhood between the ages of 1 and 3 years old.