Psych Mid Term

Hindsight Bias

“I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon”

our tendency to look back at an event that we could not predict at the time and think the outcome was easily predictable

Hypothesis

a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study

why is it important to replicate an experiment?

If research results can be replicated, it means they are more likely to be correct. Repeated replication of investigations may turn a hypothesis into a theory

Case study

Examines one individual in depth in the hope of revealing things true to us all. It can be misleading and unrepresentative of a whole group of people, drawing false conclusions

Surveys

Looks at many cases in less depth by asking questions

Naturalistic observation

Watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals/a species

Experimentation

to find answers to questions, and isolate cause and effect relationships

Random sampling

every person in the entire group has an equal chance of participating

Scatter plot

Each dot shows the values of two variables, this is used to show a potential correlation between two variables, whether it be positive, negative, or none

Operational definitions

a description of something in terms of the operations (procedures, actions, or processes) by which it could be observed and measured

Double-blind procedure

research participants and staff are ignorant about treatment or placebo

control group

group not exposed to treatment (IV)

mode

most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

mean

Arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and dividing by number of scores

standard deviation

how much scores vary around the mean score

Axon

Neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath

fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

Synapse

Junction between axon top of sending neuron and dendrite/cell body of receiving neuron in neural transmission

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps—when released, travel across synapse & bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron, influencing whether neuron (synaptic gap/synaptic cleft)

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

action potential

neural impulse; brief electrical charge travels down axon

Endocrine system

Body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Pituitary gland

Endocrine system’s most influential gland—under the influence of the hypothalamus

Lesion

tissue destruction, a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging- a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue

fMRI

functional MRI- a technique for revealing blood flow and therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

sensory switchboard, on top of brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern endocrine system (emotion and reward)

Amygdala

two lima-bean sized neural clusters; linked to emotion (agression and fear)

cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; include processing sensory input and coordinating movement out and balance

Synaptic vesicle

store various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse

association area

integrate information from different receptors or sensory areas and relate the information to past experiences

glial cell

provide support and protection to the neurons maintain homeostasis, clean up debris, and form myelin

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes

reticular formation

a complex network of brainstem nuclei and neurons that serve as a major integration and relay center for many vital brain systems to coordinate functions necessary for survival

hippocampus

a complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe, major role in learning and memory

phrenology

the study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of mental faculties and traits of character

plasticity

the ability for the brain to adapt or change over time, by creating new neurons and building new networks

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (speaking) or Wernicke’s (understanding)

The effects of Opiate drugs

drowsiness, constipation, euphoria, nausea, confusion, vomiting and slowed breathing

Limbic systems

the part of the brain involved in our behavioral and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviors we need for survival

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail party effect

o the ability to focus one's attention a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli

perceptual adaptation

the ability of the body to adapt to an environment by filtering out distractions

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

retinal disparity

a binocular cue used to perceive depth between two near objects

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

gender roles

a set of expected behaviors for males and females

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior, prescribe “normal” behavior

schema

a concept of framework that organizes and interprets information

genome

all of the genetic material contained in an organism or cell

Sleep stages in order

NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3, REM

REM

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dream commonly occur. Paradoxical sleep, the muscles are relaxed (minor twitches) other body systems are active

NREM-1

stage 1 of sleep (slip into sleep), where hallucinations occur, hypnagogic sensations

NREM-2

for about 20 minutes, periodic sleep spindles (bursts of brain activity)

NREM-3

Slow wave sleep for about 30 minutes and brain emits delta waves

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

nacrolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

Sleep apnea

temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Night terrors

sleep disorder with high arousal/appearance of being terrified; occur during NREM3 two/three hours of falling asleep, seldom remembered

Freud’s dream theory

wish fulfillment, the idea that when wishes can't or won't be fulfilled in our waking lives, they are carried out in dreams

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Classification of drugs (3)

Depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. When the use is repeated, the brain stops producing its own naturally painkillers

Hallucinogens

psychedelic (“mind manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertizilied egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins

twins who develop from seperate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change, throughout the life span

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

assimilation

interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings to incorporate new information

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exists even when not perceived

egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Piaget’s sensorimotor stage

From birth to 2 years old—Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping)

Piaget’s preoperational stage

From 2 to 6/7—Representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning

Piaget’s concrete operational stage

7 to 11—thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

Piaget’s formal operational stage

12 to adulthood—abstract reasoning

Kohlberg’s preconventional morality stage

Before 9—Self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

Kohlberg’s convetional morality stage

Early adolescene—Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

Kohlberg’s postconventional morality stage

Adolescence and beyond—Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

insecure attachment (anxious style)

clinging to mother, less likely to explore environment, and may get loudly upset with mother’s departure & remain upset when she returns

insecure attachment (avoidant style)

seeming indifferent to mother’s departure and return

Authoriarian parenting style

impose rules/expect obedience “because I said so”

Permissive parenting style

submit to children’s desires, make few demands and use little punishment