Finalized Test 2 Study

Schacter-Singer theory of emotion

States that emotions are derived from physiological responses and cognitively interpreted to create emotional experience.

Excitation transfer theory

Proposes that physiological arousal from one event can intensify emotional responses to a subsequent event.

Limbic system

The brain system activated in babies when they hear sad or distressing sounds, particularly the amygdala.

Amygdala

A brain region that plays a critical role in processing emotions, especially fear and pleasure.

Cross-cultural research on emotions

Indicates that while there are universal emotions, their experience and expression vary greatly across cultures.

Factors associated with aggression

Includes exposure to violent media, frustration, substance abuse, and societal norms supporting aggression.

Paul Rozin’s research

Shows that disgust evolves from basic aversions and has significant implications for health and social interactions.

Behavioral immune system

Psychological processes to avoid disease, which relate to purity and prejudice.

Guilt in the brain

Processed primarily in the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex.

Hedonic treadmill

The tendency of humans to quickly return to a stable level of happiness regardless of life changes.

Longitudinal stability of happiness

Research shows that happiness remains relatively stable over time with consistent individual differences.

Variance in happiness

Most of the variance in happiness is explained by genetic predispositions and life circumstances.

Emotional well-being and income

Income correlates with emotional well-being but has diminishing returns once basic needs are met.

Relative deprivation

The perception of being worse off than others, negatively affecting well-being.

Depressive realism

The clarity of perception during low mood that may lead to more accurate judgments.

Ways to elevate mood

Include physical exercise, practicing gratitude, and engaging in social interactions.

Broaden-and-build theory

Suggests positive emotions broaden thought processes and build resources over time.

Attitudes

Evaluations of people, objects, or ideas that can be positive, negative, or neutral.

Automatic vs. deliberate attitudes

Automatic attitudes are unconscious and fast, while deliberate attitudes are conscious and considered.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Measures automatic associations between concepts in our minds, relevant to issues like racism.

Negativity bias

The phenomenon where negative information has a greater impact than positive information.

Mere exposure effect

The tendency to prefer familiar things, acting positively unless initial exposure was negative.

Classical conditioning

Shapes attitudes by associating a neutral stimulus with positive or negative responses.

Selective exposure

The tendency to favor information that aligns with existing beliefs while avoiding contradictions.

Cognitive dissonance theory

Suggests discomfort arises from conflicting beliefs, prompting changes to resolve dissonance.

Post-decision dissonance

Feelings of regret or doubt following a decision, prompting emphasis on positives of the chosen option.

Effort justification

Attributing greater value to outcomes requiring significant effort, thus justifying the effort.

Attitude polarization

The phenomenon where attitudes become more extreme after exposure to supporting information.

Shattered assumptions

Breakdown of beliefs after trauma leading to a perceived victimhood identity.

Cognitive coping

Using thought processes to manage stress and emotional responses to tough situations.

Major types of social conformity

Normative social influence causes public compliance; informational social influence leads to private acceptance.

Asch's work on normative influence

Showed individuals conform to group opinions even when incorrect, influenced by group size and unanimous agreement.

Deviant dissenter response

Groups may pressure, ostracize, or value the unique perspective of a dissenter.

Situations increasing informational influence

Ambiguous situations, crises, or when others are perceived as experts increase susceptibility.

Pluralistic ignorance

When individuals believe their feelings differ from the group's, leading to collective inaction.

Foot-in-the-door technique

Starts with a small request followed by a larger one, increasing compliance likelihood.

Labeling technique

Assigning a label to someone to encourage behavior consistent with the label.

Source credibility factors

Expertise, trustworthiness, and reliability are important when evaluating source credibility.

Halo effect

A cognitive bias where a positive impression in one area influences evaluations in other areas.

Effective persuasive messages

Clear messaging, emotional appeal, and repetition increase effectiveness; scare tactics may require a solution.

Intelligence and persuasion

Higher intelligence may reduce susceptibility to superficial tactics; those with high need for cognition prefer strong, logical arguments.

Elaboration likelihood model

Posits two routes to persuasion: central route (deep processing) and peripheral route (superficial cues).

Infants' moral intuitions

Infants show a preference for pro-social characters, indicating innate moral inclinations.

Egoistic vs altruistic helping

Egoistic helping benefits oneself, while altruistic helping benefits others without expectation of gain.

Kin selection

Theory suggesting behaviors that help genetic relatives are favored by natural selection.

Proximate explanations for helping

Includes empathy, social norms, and moral obligations.

Reciprocal altruism

Behavior where one helps another with the expectation of future help, with direct or indirect reciprocity.

Prisoner's dilemma

A situation where individuals must decide to cooperate or defect, with defection being the logical choice.

Factors increasing cooperation

Trust, clear communication, repeated interactions, and encouraging social norms enhance cooperation.

Tit for tat strategy

In the iterated prisoner's dilemma, it cooperates first and mimics the opponent's previous move.

Altruistic punishment

Punishing norm violators at a personal cost to promote cooperation.

Under-benefited vs over-benefited

Under-benefited is receiving less than deserved; over-benefited is receiving more than deserved.

Monkeys and unfairness

Monkeys react negatively to being under-benefited, showing distress when receiving less desirable rewards.

Human reaction to unfairness

Humans react negatively to unfairness, often exhibiting aggression or withdrawal.

Moral intuitions

Quick, emotional responses to moral dilemmas; exemplified by the trolley problem.

Haidt's moral foundations theory

Moral reasoning is based on care, fairness, loyalty, authority, and purity; differs between liberals and conservatives.

Factors influencing helping behavior

Similarity, mood, gender, and attractiveness affect the likelihood of helping.

Five steps to bystander helping

1. Notice, 2) Interpret as emergency, 3) Take responsibility, 4) Decide how to help, 5) Implement help.

Good Samaritan study findings

Situational factors, like time pressure, influence helping behavior, showing moral intent may falter under stress.