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Schacter-Singer theory of emotion
States that emotions are derived from physiological responses and cognitively interpreted to create emotional experience.
Excitation transfer theory
Proposes that physiological arousal from one event can intensify emotional responses to a subsequent event.
Limbic system
The brain system activated in babies when they hear sad or distressing sounds, particularly the amygdala.
Amygdala
A brain region that plays a critical role in processing emotions, especially fear and pleasure.
Cross-cultural research on emotions
Indicates that while there are universal emotions, their experience and expression vary greatly across cultures.
Factors associated with aggression
Includes exposure to violent media, frustration, substance abuse, and societal norms supporting aggression.
Paul Rozin’s research
Shows that disgust evolves from basic aversions and has significant implications for health and social interactions.
Behavioral immune system
Psychological processes to avoid disease, which relate to purity and prejudice.
Guilt in the brain
Processed primarily in the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex.
Hedonic treadmill
The tendency of humans to quickly return to a stable level of happiness regardless of life changes.
Longitudinal stability of happiness
Research shows that happiness remains relatively stable over time with consistent individual differences.
Variance in happiness
Most of the variance in happiness is explained by genetic predispositions and life circumstances.
Emotional well-being and income
Income correlates with emotional well-being but has diminishing returns once basic needs are met.
Relative deprivation
The perception of being worse off than others, negatively affecting well-being.
Depressive realism
The clarity of perception during low mood that may lead to more accurate judgments.
Ways to elevate mood
Include physical exercise, practicing gratitude, and engaging in social interactions.
Broaden-and-build theory
Suggests positive emotions broaden thought processes and build resources over time.
Attitudes
Evaluations of people, objects, or ideas that can be positive, negative, or neutral.
Automatic vs. deliberate attitudes
Automatic attitudes are unconscious and fast, while deliberate attitudes are conscious and considered.
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Measures automatic associations between concepts in our minds, relevant to issues like racism.
Negativity bias
The phenomenon where negative information has a greater impact than positive information.
Mere exposure effect
The tendency to prefer familiar things, acting positively unless initial exposure was negative.
Classical conditioning
Shapes attitudes by associating a neutral stimulus with positive or negative responses.
Selective exposure
The tendency to favor information that aligns with existing beliefs while avoiding contradictions.
Cognitive dissonance theory
Suggests discomfort arises from conflicting beliefs, prompting changes to resolve dissonance.
Post-decision dissonance
Feelings of regret or doubt following a decision, prompting emphasis on positives of the chosen option.
Effort justification
Attributing greater value to outcomes requiring significant effort, thus justifying the effort.
Attitude polarization
The phenomenon where attitudes become more extreme after exposure to supporting information.
Shattered assumptions
Breakdown of beliefs after trauma leading to a perceived victimhood identity.
Cognitive coping
Using thought processes to manage stress and emotional responses to tough situations.
Major types of social conformity
Normative social influence causes public compliance; informational social influence leads to private acceptance.
Asch's work on normative influence
Showed individuals conform to group opinions even when incorrect, influenced by group size and unanimous agreement.
Deviant dissenter response
Groups may pressure, ostracize, or value the unique perspective of a dissenter.
Situations increasing informational influence
Ambiguous situations, crises, or when others are perceived as experts increase susceptibility.
Pluralistic ignorance
When individuals believe their feelings differ from the group's, leading to collective inaction.
Foot-in-the-door technique
Starts with a small request followed by a larger one, increasing compliance likelihood.
Labeling technique
Assigning a label to someone to encourage behavior consistent with the label.
Source credibility factors
Expertise, trustworthiness, and reliability are important when evaluating source credibility.
Halo effect
A cognitive bias where a positive impression in one area influences evaluations in other areas.
Effective persuasive messages
Clear messaging, emotional appeal, and repetition increase effectiveness; scare tactics may require a solution.
Intelligence and persuasion
Higher intelligence may reduce susceptibility to superficial tactics; those with high need for cognition prefer strong, logical arguments.
Elaboration likelihood model
Posits two routes to persuasion: central route (deep processing) and peripheral route (superficial cues).
Infants' moral intuitions
Infants show a preference for pro-social characters, indicating innate moral inclinations.
Egoistic vs altruistic helping
Egoistic helping benefits oneself, while altruistic helping benefits others without expectation of gain.
Kin selection
Theory suggesting behaviors that help genetic relatives are favored by natural selection.
Proximate explanations for helping
Includes empathy, social norms, and moral obligations.
Reciprocal altruism
Behavior where one helps another with the expectation of future help, with direct or indirect reciprocity.
Prisoner's dilemma
A situation where individuals must decide to cooperate or defect, with defection being the logical choice.
Factors increasing cooperation
Trust, clear communication, repeated interactions, and encouraging social norms enhance cooperation.
Tit for tat strategy
In the iterated prisoner's dilemma, it cooperates first and mimics the opponent's previous move.
Altruistic punishment
Punishing norm violators at a personal cost to promote cooperation.
Under-benefited vs over-benefited
Under-benefited is receiving less than deserved; over-benefited is receiving more than deserved.
Monkeys and unfairness
Monkeys react negatively to being under-benefited, showing distress when receiving less desirable rewards.
Human reaction to unfairness
Humans react negatively to unfairness, often exhibiting aggression or withdrawal.
Moral intuitions
Quick, emotional responses to moral dilemmas; exemplified by the trolley problem.
Haidt's moral foundations theory
Moral reasoning is based on care, fairness, loyalty, authority, and purity; differs between liberals and conservatives.
Factors influencing helping behavior
Similarity, mood, gender, and attractiveness affect the likelihood of helping.
Five steps to bystander helping
Notice, 2) Interpret as emergency, 3) Take responsibility, 4) Decide how to help, 5) Implement help.
Good Samaritan study findings
Situational factors, like time pressure, influence helping behavior, showing moral intent may falter under stress.