Finalized Test 2 Study

Emotions and social Behavior:

1.Describe the Schacter-Singer theory of emotion

The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion suggests that emotions are derived from physiological responses to stimuli and that these responses are cognitively interpreted to create the final emotional experience..

2. What is the excitation transfer theory?

The excitation transfer theory posits that physiological arousal from one event can intensify emotional responses to a subsequent event if they occur close together in time.

3. What brain system is activated when babies hear sad or distressing sounds?

When babies hear sad or distressing sounds, the brain system activated is the limbic system, particularly the amygdala, which processes emotional information.

4. Describe the role of the amygdala in processing emotions.

The amygdala plays a critical role in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure. It evaluates emotional significance and triggers responses linked to these emotions.

5. What are the conclusions from cross-cultural research on felt emotional experience?

Cross-cultural research indicates that while there are universal emotions, the experience and expression of these emotions can vary greatly across different cultures.

6. What are some factors associated with increased aggression in humans we discussed in class?

Factors associated with increased aggression in humans include exposure to violent media, frustration, substance abuse, and societal norms that condone aggressive behavior.

7. Describe Paul Rozin’s research on the development of disgust.

Paul Rozin's research on the development of disgust shows that disgust is a complex emotion that can evolve from basic aversions and has significant implications for health and social interactions.

8. What is the behavioral immune system? How does this relate to concepts such a purity and prejudice?

The behavioral immune system refers to psychological processes that individuals use to avoid disease, which can lead to concepts of purity and prejudice as people may reject those perceived as contagious or different.

9. According to research discussed in class, where is guilt processed in the brain?

Guilt is processed in the brain primarily within the prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex, regions associated with self-regulation and emotional processing.

10. What is the hedonic treadmill?

The hedonic treadmill describes the observed tendency of humans to quickly return to a stable level of happiness despite major positive or negative life changes.

11. What does research suggest about the longitudinal stability of happiness?

Research suggests that happiness tends to be relatively stable over time, with individual differences in happiness remaining consistent across different life situations.

12. What two general factors explain most of the variance in happiness in the population?

The two general factors that explain most of the variance in happiness in the population are genetic predispositions and life circumstances.

13. What are the findings on the relation between emotional well-being and income?

Findings indicate that while income can correlate with emotional well-being, it has diminishing returns on happiness once basic needs are met; beyond a certain point, increases in income do not significantly enhance well-being.

14. What is relative deprivation?

Relative deprivation is the perception of being worse off compared to others, which can negatively affect well-being and life satisfaction.

15. What is the benefit of low mood and so-called ‘depressive realism’?

The benefit of low mood and 'depressive realism' is that individuals may have a clearer perception of reality during periods of low mood, which can lead to more accurate judgments and decision-making.

16. What are some ways to elevate mood we discussed in class?

1. Ways to elevate mood discussed in class include physical exercise, practicing gratitude, engaging in social interactions.

17. What is the broaden-and-build theory?

The broaden and Build theory posits that positive emotions broaden an individual's thought processes, leading to the building of social, psychological, and physical resources over time.

Attitudes and Beliefs:

18.What are attitudes? Automatic vs. deliberate attitudes?

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas that can be positive, negative, or neutral.Automatic attitudes are unconscious and arise quickly, often influenced by prior experiences and socialization.Deliberate attitudes are conscious and involve careful consideration of information and feelings before forming an evaluation.

19. What is the Implicit Association Test (IAT)? How is it relevant to issues such as racism?The Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures the

strength of automatic associations between concepts in our minds. It is relevant to racism because it can reveal unconscious biases that individuals may have towards different racial groups, even if they consciously endorse egalitarian beliefs.

20.What is the negativity bias? How does this affect first impressions?

The negativity bias is the psychological phenomenon where negative information or experiences weigh more heavily than positive ones. This affects first impressions as people are more likely to remember and be influenced by negative traits or actions than positive ones.

21. What is the mere exposure effect? When do we see it? When do we not?

The mere exposure effect is the tendency to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar. It is seen in areas such as advertising and relationships, where repeated exposure can enhance liking. However, it may not occur if initial exposure is negative or if the frequency of exposure becomes overwhelming.

22.Explain how classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning shape our attitudes.

Classical conditioning shapes attitudes by associating a neutral stimulus with a positive or negative response (e.g., advertising linking a product with positive emotions).Operant conditioning involves reinforcement or punishment that shapes attitudes based on the consequences of certain behaviors (e.g., praising someone for kindness reinforces that attitude). Social learning suggests that attitudes can also be formed through observing others and the outcomes of their behaviors (e.g., learning prejudice from societal norms).

23. What is selective exposure? Filter bubbles?

Selective exposure refers to the tendency to favor information that aligns with one's existing beliefs while avoiding contradictory information. Filter bubbles are a result of this selective exposure, created by algorithms on social media that show users content based on their previous interactions, limiting their exposure to diverse viewpoints.

24. What is cognitive dissonance theory?

Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals experience discomfort when they hold conflicting beliefs or attitudes, prompting them to change one of the conflicting beliefs or behaviors to achieve consistency and reduce discomfort.

25., What is post-decision dissonance?

Post-decision dissonance occurs after making a decision, leading to feelings of regret or doubt about the choice. To alleviate this discomfort, individuals may emphasize the positive aspects of the chosen option and downplay the negatives of the rejected alternatives.

26.What is effort justification?

Effort justification refers to the tendency to attribute greater value to outcomes that require significant effort, thus justifying the effort invested. This can result in individuals viewing difficult experiences in a more positive light than they may deserve.

27. What is attitude polarization?

Attitude polarization refers to the phenomenon where individuals attitudes become more extreme after
being exposed to information that supports their stance, instead of moderating or changing their views.

28.What are shattered assumptions as it relates to victimhood? Shattered assumptions refer to the breakdown of previously held beliefs
about the world after experiencing trauma, which can lead to a perceived victimhood identity. This can affect the individual's coping mechanisms and social interactions.

29.What is cognitive coping? Research on cancer survivors?

Cognitive coping involves using thought processes to manage stress and emotional responses to difficult situations. Research on cancer survivor V shown that effective cognitive coping strategies may lead to better psychological adjustment and improved quality of life following diagnosis and treatment.

Social Influence & Persuasion:

30. What are the two major types of social conformity? Which type tends to elicit 'public compliance'? Which type tends to elicit 'private acceptance'?

• The two major types of social conformity are normative social influence and informational social influence. Normative social influence often leads to public compliance, as individuals conform to be accepted by the group. In contrast, informational social influence leads to private acceptance, as individuals change their beliefs based on the information provided by the group.

31.. Describe Asch's work on normative social influence. What factors influence normative influence (e.g., size of group)?

• Solomon Asch conducted experiments demonstrating normative social influence, showing that individuals often conform to group opinions, even when they are clearly incorrect. Factors influencing normative influence include the size of the group (larger groups often lead to more conformity), unanimity (if everyone in the group agrees, conformity increases), and the presence of a partner who disagrees with the group (which can decrease conformity).

32. How do groups respond to a 'deviant dissenter'?

• Groups may respond to a deviant dissenter by attempting to pressure them to conform, ostracizing them, or sometimes valuing their unique perspective if it provides beneficial information to the group.

33. What situations increase susceptibility to informational influence?

• Situations that increase susceptibility to informational influence include ambiguous situations (where the correct behavior is unclear), crisis situations (where quick decisions are necessary), and when others are perceived as experts or knowledgeable about the situation.

35.What is pluralistic ignorance? Examples?

• Pluralistic ignorance occurs when individuals in a group mistakenly believe that their own feelings, thoughts, or beliefs are different from those of the group, leading to a failure in collective action. Example: A group of students may all feel uncomfortable asking a question in class, but each believes they are the only one who is confused, leading to silence.

36. Be familiar with all the sales techniques we covered in class (e.g., foot-in-the-door technique, labeling technique, etc.). Be able to apply them to examples.

• Foot-in-the-door technique: Starts with a small request which is likely accepted, followed by a larger request. For example, asking someone to sign a petition before asking for a donation.

• Labeling technique: Assigning someone a label and then requesting a behavior that is consistent with the label. For example, calling someone "helpful" to encourage them to assist with a task.

37. Regarding persuasion, what factors are important when evaluating source credibility? What about source likability? What is the halo effect?

• Factors important for source credibility include expertise, trustworthiness, and reliability. Source likability also affects persuasion-more likable sources are generally more persuasive. The halo effect is a cognitive bias where a positive impression in one area influences evaluations in other areas, making a likable person seem more credible.

38. In terms of the persuasive message, what factors are important (e.g., are scare tactics effective, what about repetitive messages)?

• Clear messaging, emotional appeal, and repetition increase effectiveness; however, scare tactics may be effective if they include also presenting a feasible solution. Too much repetition, however, may lead to boredom or backlash.

39. How does intelligence and 'need for cognition' affect persuasion?

• Individuals with higher intelligence may be less susceptible to superficial persuasion tactics and more influenced by factual information. Those with a high need for cognition enjoy thinking deeply about issues and are more likely to be persuaded by strong, logical arguments rather than emotional or superficial ones.

40.What is the elaboration likelihood model? What is the central vs. peripheral route?

• The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) posits that there are two routes to persuasion: the central route, which involves deep processing of a persuasive message when the audience is motivated and able to think critically about the topic.

Origins of Altruism, Prosocial Behavior, & Helping

41.What were the main findings we watched about babies’ moral and social intuitions?

Infants show a preference for characters who behave pro-socially over those who do not, suggesting innate moral inclinations.

42. What is egoistic helping vs altruistic helping?

• Egoistic helping refers to actions taken to benefit oneself, while altruistic helping involves acting to benefit others without any expectation of personal gain.

43. What is kin selection?

• Kin selection is a theory suggesting that behaviors which help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection, increasing the likelihood of shared genes being passed on.

44. What are some proximate explanations for helping others?

• Proximate explanations for helping include empathy, social norms, emotional responses, and feelings of moral obligation.

45. What is reciprocal altruism? Direct vs. indirect reciprocity?

• Reciprocal altruism refers to behavior where one organism helps another with the expectation of future help. Direct reciprocity is when the helper receives help directly back, while indirect reciprocity is when help is given expecting that others in the social network will offer assistance in the future.

46. What is the prisoner's dilemma? What is the purely logical decision for a prisoner in a single iteration of this dilemma?

• The prisoner's dilemma is a situation in which two individuals must decide whether to cooperate or defect. The purely logical decision is to defect since it maximizes personal benefit regardless of the other's choice.

47. What factors help increase cooperation and reciprocation?

• Factors that enhance cooperation include establishing trust, clear communication, repeated interactions, and social norms encouraging collaborative behavior.

48. What is an effective strategy in a repeated/iterated prisoner's dilemma?

• An effective strategy is "tit for tat," where a player starts by cooperating and then mimics the opponent's previous move in subsequent rounds.

49. What is altruistic punishment?

• Altruistic punishment involves individuals punishing those who violate social norms even at a cost to themselves, promoting cooperation within the group.

50. Describe the two kinds of unfairness one may experience: under-benefited vs. over-benefited.

• Under-benefited refers to receiving less than one deserves, while over-benefited refers to receiving more than one deserves.

51. Which kind of unfairness seems most important to monkeys (e.g., when getting cucumbers vs. grapes)?

• Monkeys appear to be more sensitive to being under-benefited, as they show signs of distress when receiving less desirable rewards like cucumbers compared to their peers receiving more desirable rewards like grapes.

52. How do humans respond to these kinds of unfairness?

• Humans often react negatively to feelings of unfairness, showing increased aggression or withdrawal when they feel under-benefited and may retaliate or express dissatisfaction.

53. What are moral intuitions? What is the trolley problem?

• Moral intuitions are quick, often emotional responses to moral dilemmas. The trolley problem presents a scenario where one must choose to kill one person to save five others, raising questions about utilitarianism and ethics.

54. Describe Haidt's moral foundations theory. What are the five foundations? How do these tend to differ in liberals vs. conservatives?

• Haidt's moral foundations theory suggests that moral reasoning is based on five foundations: care, fairness, loyalty, authority, and purity. Liberals tend to emphasize care and fairness, while conservatives often value all five more equally, including loyalty, authority, and purity.

55. Describe the factors we discussed about general helping behavior (e.g., similarity, mood, gender, attractiveness) and research related to each.

• Factors influencing helping behavior include:

• Similarity: People are more likely to help those who resemble them.

• Mood: Individuals in a good mood are more likely to engage in helping behavior.

• Gender: Men may be more likely to help in danger situations, while women may engage more in nurturing helping.

• Attractiveness: Individuals are often more inclined to help those whom they find attractive.

56. What are the five steps to bystander helping and roadblocks that can occur at each step? Describe these factors (e.g., bystander effect) and associated studies.

• The five steps are: 1) Notice the incident, 2) Interpret it as an emergency, 3) Take responsibility, 4) Decide how to help, 5) Implement the help. Roadblocks include distraction, ambiguity (bystander effect), diffusion of responsibility, uncertainty, and fear of social disapproval.

57. What were the findings from the Good Samaritan study?

• The Good Samaritan study found that situational factors, such as the time pressure experienced by individuals, greatly influenced whether they would help a distressed person, demonstrating that even those with high moral intent may act contrary to it understress.

What is the bystander effect? - The bystander effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present, often feeling less personal responsibility to act.

What influences the likelihood of bystander intervention? - Factors such as the ambiguity of the situation, the number of bystanders present, and social norms can reduce the likelihood of intervention.

How does pluralistic ignorance relate to the bystander effect? - Pluralistic ignorance occurs when bystanders wrongly assume that others do not want to help, leading to collective inaction.

What role does diffusion of responsibility play in the bystander effect? - Diffusion of responsibility suggests that when more people are present, individuals feel less responsible for taking action, thinking someone else will help.

Can situational factors, like time pressure, affect bystander helping? - Yes, situational factors, such as being in a hurry, can greatly impact whether a bystander decides to help.

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