AP Psych: Unit 2A - Remembering & Forgetting

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory retention in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier without the aid of additional cues, such as a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory retention in which a person must identify information previously learned, such as a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory retention that assesses the how much more quickly material is learned after having already learned it once

information-processing model

describing human memory using analogies that compare it to a computer's operations

encoding

the process of entering information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining information in the memory system over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of the memory system for use

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously, as opposed to serial processing

connectionism

an information-processing model of memory that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

multi-store model

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin's explanation of memory, describing it as a process consisting of three distinct stages

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of external stimuli

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory

working memory model

describing short-term memory with a focus on conscious, active processing of visual-spatial information, auditory information, and information retrieved from long-term memory by a "central executive"

maintenance rehearsal

retaining information in short-memory by simply repeating it over and over

elaborative rehearsal

retaining information by connecting it to prior knowledge and past experiences

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

the part of working memory that holds and processes mental images and visual information

neurogenesis

the development of new neurons

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell's firing potential after stimulation; a biological basis for learning and memory

Alzheimer's disease

an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning

dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

memories that we don't consciously recall and "declare" but are nevertheless retained

procedural memory

memory of motor skills and behavioral habits

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental and/or well-learned information

iconic memory

our sensory register for visual stimuli

echoic memory

our sensory register for auditory stimuli

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

peg-word system

a mnemonic in which items on a list are remembered by being associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle

method of loci

a mnemonic in which items on a list are remembered by being associated with a sequence of familiar physical locations

acrostics

a mnemonic in which items are remembered by associating each item on a list with a word in a phrase or poem that shares the same first letter

acronyms

a mnemonic in which items are remembered by using the first letter of each item to form word or phrase

rhymes/songs

a mnemonic in which items are remembered by associating them with a catchy rhyme scheme or melody

hierarchies

a way of processing information into a few broad concepts, divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

distributed practice

a practice schedule in which studying is completed in small chunks with space in between

testing effect

the tendency for memory to be more enhanced by active retrieval than by passive rereading of information

levels of processing model

proposes that we can attend to verbal information at different "depths" and that "depth" affects long-term retention of the information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure, appearance, or sound of words; yields inferior retention

structural encoding

relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of words

phonemic encoding

a relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the sound of the words

deep processing

encoding on an advanced level based on the meaning of words

semantic encoding

a relatively deep processing that emphasizes the meaning of words

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

semantic memory

memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

memory of personal, past experiences

prefrontal cortex

the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes; important for explicit memory storage

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process memories explicit memories for long-term storage

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

cerebellum

the large structure to the rear of the brainstem; important to implicit memory storage

basal ganglia

a neural center of the deep brain that helps process implicit memories, especially procedural memories, for long-term storage

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood, particularly before the age of 3

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; important in the encoding of emotional memories

memory trace

physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed

flashbulb memory

a particularly vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory

retrospective memory

remembering information from the past

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations in memory

context-dependent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information when one is in the same circumstances or environment as they were during encoding

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

state-dependent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information when one is in the same internal or mental condition as they were during encoding

mood-congruent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember items at the end of a list especially well

metacognition

thinking about thinking; awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes

interleaving

switching between sections, chapters, or lectures when studying

autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

encoding failure

the inability to remember information because it was not effectively entered into the memory system in the first place

storage decay

the inability to remember information because it has faded over time

forgetting curve

a graph showing retention and forgetting over time

retrieval failure

the inability to remember information because it cannot be accessed in storage

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

motivated forgetting

the inability to remember information because one consciously or unconsciously doesn't want to

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism in which anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories are banished from consciousness

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

constructive memory

a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

déjà vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before" caused by cues from the current situation that subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.