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signaling cascade
extracellular signal molecule → receptor protein → intracellular signaling molecule → effector proteins → target cell responses
endocrine/hormonal signaling
long distance signaling
goes through the whole body through the bloodstream
paracrine signaling
local signaling
usually the signal stays within the tissue/organ
synaptic/neuronal signaling
signaling in NEURONS
the QUICKEST signaling type
contact-dependent signing
signaling that relies on cell-cell contact
can a signaling molecule have one job/effect or many?
MANY!
FAST signal response time
turning ALREADY MADE proteins on/off
SLOW signal response time
changing gene expression + creating NEW proteins
4 functions of signaling cascades
relay, amplify, integrate, distribute
relay
signal cascade function where one things turns on one other thing (think relay race)
amplify
signal cascade function where one thing turns on many others (think megaphone/speaker)
integrate
signal cascade function where a lot of info is boiled down to one decision
positive feedback
amplifies/increases activity of a pathway
negative feedback
inhibits/stops activity of a pathway
homeostasis
a biological “set-point” that the body strives to maintain (e.g. internal temperature)
why are drugs (exogenous) effective on receptors?
they’re structurally similar to proteins we already make (endogenous)
ion channel coupled receptors
exactly the same as ligand-gated ion channels
channels + receptors at the same time
GPCRs (g-protein-coupled receptors)
largest family of cell-surface receptors
where the vast majority of drugs work
go through the membrane 7 times
G protein
a lipid-linked protein
at REST, the subunits (alpha, beta, gamma) are TOGETHER
after it’s turned on, it releases GDP (low energy) and GTP binds to the activated alpha subunit (separated from the beta-gamma complex)
GDP = OFF // GTP = ON
how does the G-protein switch itself off?
the activated alpha subunit activates a target protein → GTP is hydrolyzed (now GDP) and the alpha subunit is inactivated, therefore dissociating from the target protein → inactive alpha subunit rejoins the beta-gamma complex and the g protein is off again
drug tolerance
a body getting used to a drug (like your ears after going to a concert, and you get used to the loud music so everything else seems muffled)
GPCR internalization process
a process that leads to drug tolerance/dependence
steps:
no signal: no drug given yet. GPCR is off (GDP)
signal: drug is given and binds to the receptor, which turns on (GTP)
desensitization: drug tolerance begins. beta-arrestin (think arrest=stop) attaches to the GPCR and the receptor “steps away”, still working but less than before
internalization: drug dependence begins. GPCR gets sucked into the cell (internalized) by the beta-arrestin and won’t work anymore
last stage: GPCR fully engulfed through endocytosis (engulfed in an endosome)
Gi protein
type of G protein
inhibitory (pertussis toxin)
Gs protein
type of G protein
stimulatory (cholera toxin)
what else can G proteins do?
turn on ion channels: e.g. G protein can turn K+ ion channel ON by binding (in active form) to the cytosol next to the channel and turns it OFF by deactivating (GTP → GDP)
turn on enzymes
adenylyl cyclase
enzyme that produces cAMP
signaling process
signal binds to receptor → turns on G protein (GTP) → turns on adenylyl cyclase → adenylyl creates cAMP → cAMP sends the signal to protein kinase A
which G protein (stimulatory or inhibitory) starts the production of cAMP
Gs (stimulatory), catalyzed by adenylyl cyclase
FAST cAMP pathway
GPCR → G-protein → cAMP → PKA (protein kinase) → metabolic kinase → cellular effect
proteins are already created!
SLOW cAMP pathway
GPCR → G-protein → cAMP → PKA (protein kinase) → transcription factor → cellular effect
affecting gene expression!
phospholipase C (PLC)
enzyme IN THE MEMBRANE that produces IP3 and DAG (will be written shorthand on exam)
PLC signaling pathways
signal binds to GPCR → G-protein activates PLC → PLC produces IP3
splits into 2 pathways:
IP3 causes Ca2+ to be released from ER
IP3 turns on DAG → activates PKC (protein kinase C)
calcium messaging pathway
PLC produces IP3 → Ca2+ released → Calmodulin (does stuff by changing shape)
signaling qualities
VERY fast, sensitive, and adaptable!
RTK (receptor tyrosine kinase)
a receptor that phosphorylates tyrosine when something binds to it; AUTO phosphorylates (phosphorylates itself)
turns on RAS!
RTK pathway
RTK → RAS → MAPKKK → MAPKK → MAPK → changes protein activity (fast) or gene expression (slow)
cyclin
protein that controls/pushes the cell cycle; like checks & balances
G0 phase
cell doing normal activity, no interest in dividing
S phase
DNA replication (begins in origins of replication / oris)
S-Cdk
starts the S-phase by binding to the right cyclin + activating the complex to activate the helicase
cohesion rings
hold together sister chromatids
M-Cdk
triggers the condensation of the chromosomes (tightens the chromatin, NO gene expression)
MAPK
FAST cascade that has positive feedback, influences Cdc25 activity
condensin rings
loop around loose chromosome and turns it into an X-shape
cell cycle steps
interphase (G1, S, G2) → prophase → prometaphase → metaphase → mitosis → anaphase → telophase → cytokinesis
prophase
1st cell cycle phase with TWO centrosomes, and the chromosomes are condensing
prometaphase
2nd cell cycle phase where the nuclear envelope is being broken down
metaphase
3rd cell cycle phase where the microtubules pull chromosomes to the middle
anaphase
4th cell cycle phase where X-shaped chromosomes are split in half, and cohesion rings break
telophase
5th cell cycle phase where the nuclei are recreated
cytokinesis
final cell cycle phase where the cytoplasm is divided in two by a contractile ring of actin and myosin filaments
centrosome
major microtubule organizing center
centrosome cycle
centrosome duplicated → move to opposite poles during mitosis → each attach to their own microtubules/mitotic spindles
aster microtubules
type of microtubule that comes out from the centrosome and attaches to the rest of the cell to stabilize it
kinetochore microtubules
type of microtubule that binds directly to DNA
interpolar microtubules
type of microtubule that connects to each other between poles
APC
anaphase promoting complex; signaling molecule
active separase
enzyme that separates cohesion rings
cohesion complex
holds chromosomes together in metaphase
chromosome separation triggered by APC
inhibitory protein (securin) and separase form a complex → (2 pathways)
active APC leads to ubiquitylation + degradation of securin
cohesion rings are cleaved and dissociated by active separase during anaphase
breakdown and reformation of nuclear membrane
interphase nucleus → phosphorylation of nuclear pore proteins and lamins → prometaphase (break down nuclear membrane through phosphorylation) → dephosphorylation of nuclear pore proteins and lamins → telophase (makes 2 new nuclei) → continued fusion of nuclear envelope vesicles → cycle restarts
cytokinesis in plant cells involves what?
formation of a cell wall
apoptosis
programmed cell death; very important, highly controlled, important for structural development, quick, and “environmentally friendly” (doesn’t harm nearby cells)
what is an example of organ size control?
through the process of apoptosis, the balance between cell birth and cell death is kept. an example of this is in the liver: exposing the human liver to phenobarbital (a drug that stimulates liver cell division) will make the liver enlarge
necrosis
MESSY, causes inflammation and damage to neighbors (like a sudden death)
caspases
family of proteases (break down proteins) important in apoptosis
amplifying caspase cascade
cascade that regulates apoptosis; IRREVERSIBLE and tightly controlled
one molecule of active initiator caspase → activates multiple caspases → turns on more → leads to cleavage of nuclear lamin and THEN the cleavage of cytosolic protein
Bcl-2 proteins
family of proteins that regulate apoptosis (there are anti and pro apoptotic ones)
anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins
Bcl-2, Bcl-XL
pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins
Bax, Bak, Bad
mitrochondria’s role in caspase cascade
cause caspase cascade to start by releasing cytochrome C
3 classes of signals to the cell from the environment
(pro) survival factors: suppress apoptosis
mitogens: stimulate cell division
growth factors: stimulate cell growth
note: these signals are NOT mutually exclusive, so a combination of them can be sent at once!
how do survival factors limit the number of neurons we’re born with?
we grow a TON of neurons before birth, but there’s not enough survival factors so the ones without them go through apoptosis
growth factors stimulating cell growth
increased protein synthesis + decreased protein degradation = cell growth!
myostatin cow example
myostatin: inhibitory growth factor that tells our muscles when to stop growing; if there is a mutation in myostatin genes, there is a lot of uncontrolled muscle growth… sometimes cows are bred for muscle mass, where this mutation occurs
cellulose
a big part of the plant wall, and the reason why plant cells don’t need a matrix
4 major types of animal tissue
connective (needs a LOT of extracellular matrix b/c it has more mechanical stress), epithelial, nervous, muscular
collagen
building material in the ECM
what is leather made of?
pickled collagen
how do collagen molecules organize?
they form triple-stranded collagen molecules (BIG, THICK SPIRAL!)
fibroblasts
make and maintain/break down the ECM
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS)
group of diseases due to collagen not forming correctly (rly stretchy skin example)
where does the strength come from for the plasma membrane?
cytoskeleton, integrin, and ECM (not strong on its own)
integrins
binds + creates a signal
decel/recel technology
removing all cells from an organ and leaving only the ECM, then the organ is injected with the patient’s cells. the cells recognize the ECM and function properly
GAGs
form bottle brush like structures (hydrophilic) and take up a lot of room
hyaluronan molecule (hyaluronic acid): commonly used in skin care
chondroitin sulfate: commonly used in joint care
epithelia
a layer in the cell that keeps some molecules in and others out, takes up nutrients and exports waste, and contains receptors for environmental signals; apical and basal sides have DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS!
e.g. epithelium of the gut lines the cell
apical
side of epithelia cell that faces the air or watery fluid (“top”)
basal
side of epithelia cell that is deeper into the organ (“bottom”)
tight junction
seals neighboring cells together in an epithelial sheet to prevent leakage of molecules between them
adherens junction
form a strong, continuous “belt” around the epithelium
desmosome
type of cell-cell junction that joins the intermediate filaments (STRONG) in one cell to those in a neighboring cell
gap junctions
connexons connect cells via the cytoplasm
can OPEN and CLOSE!
hemidesmosome
“half” desmosomes that connect intermediate filaments to the basal lamina
how is the organization of tissue preserved?
cell communication, selective cell-cell adhesion, and cell “memory”
stem cells
cells that can differentiate into many types of cells
divide a LOT (dividing precursor cells do the most of that)
mature into terminally differentiated cells
where in the lumen of the gut are stem cells located?
at the BOTTOM of the crypt
hemopoietic (blood) stem cell
stem cell in the blood (an organ); can make ALL the cell types in that organ
Wnt pathways in the gut
INACTIVE in villi (if active here, it’d cause cancer)
ACTIVE in crypt
without Wnt signal: APC ON, beta-catenin OFF
with Wnt signal: Wnt → signal cascade → beta-catenin → cell division (APC OFF, beta-catenin ON)
induced pluripotent cells
have the potential to become many things; created by taking any cell and forcing it to become a stem cell