Theories: Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism, Social Action theorists, Postmodernists

What are the Functionalist theories studied in this set?

Parsons:

• Organic analogy

• System needs

• Value consensus

Merton:

• Internal critiques of Functionalism

How does society meets its systems needs? (Parsons)

Instrumental (must be met):

• Adaptation: Material needs met through economic sub-systems

• Goal attainment: Goals set/resources provided through political sub-systems

Emotional expressive (desired):

• Integration: Societal integration + shared values pushed through religion/ education/media sub-sections

• Latency: Once other 3 have been met, kinship sub-sections (community/family networks) manage tension to stop them falling apart

How can societies functions shift to meet a change in the systems needs? (Parsons)

Functional Fit:

• Modern society demands geographical mobility to work

• Thus values shifted emphasises individualism above collectivism, as cooperation within tight knit communities is no longer needed, and geographical mobility is made easier when people put individual self-interest above family commitments

What is Parsons theory of society as based on consensus and cooperation, like an organism?

3 similarities between society and a biological organism:

• System: Both self-supporting systems of interdependent parts, organs in body, institutions in society

• System needs: Both have needs that cause it to die if not met (eg nutrients in body, value consensus in society)

• Functions: They both carry out function to meet said needs (eg nutrients gained through digestion, value consensus through socialistion)

Why does society need value consensus? (Parsons)

• Provides framework for cooperation, laying down rules about how to behave, what to expect

• Ensures social order, wouldn`t be possible if people had differing values of whats acceptable

How do we develop a value consensus? (Parsons)

• Socialisation: Individuals taught to want to do what is needed to be done. The norms and values are “internalised”

• Social control: Positive rewards for conformity and negative ones are punished

What are Mertons internal critiques of Functionalism?

Universal functionalism:

• Parsons assumes that institutions universally benefit all, however this lacks nuance, institutions can be both functional for some an dysfunctional for others

• eg education function for most students, however is dysfunctional for those with non-trad needs) (links to conflict criticism)

What are external critiques of Functionalism?

Society is not based on consensus, eg 600m face food insecurity globally, but 40% of food in the UK is thrown away

What are the Marxist theories studied in this set?

• Historical materialism and capitalism

• Class society, exploitation and alienation

• Class consciousness, ideology and hegemony

What is historical materialism?

Fundamentally, human action is shaped by material needs (eg obtaining food). These material needs are met by means of production, and thus, historical development is defined by peoples relationship said means of production.

This means that our current relations to production - capitalism (means of production privately owned) acts as the base of society, determines all other features of society, the superstructure of institutions, beliefs etc

What is class society?

• In prehistory, their was no surplus. Thus everyone had to work equally, and collectively in order to meet the groups needs (Primitive Communism)

• However as the means of production became more advance (eg development of agriculture), people were able to take control of said surplus, and monopiles said means (eg by “owning” agricultural land).

• Thus class society, based on exploitation emerged (initially Ancient society - exploitation of slaves tied to “owners”, Feudal society - exploitation of serfs tied to land, Capitalist society - exploitations of wage labourers)

• The ultimately goal is to over through class society, by communalizing the means of production

What makes capitalism distinct from other class societies?

• Unlike slaves or serfs, the proletariat are legally separate from the means of production. Still forced to sell labour (only recieving the cost of subsidence, enough to keep them alive/not rebelling) but get some choice over who too

• Competition between Capitalists cause wages to be minimalized, causing immiseration (impoverishment of the w/c)

• Competition causes ownership of the means of production to become concentrated (high TNCs of today), proletarianism “petty-bourgeoise” as they go bust (its own grave digger) + class polarisation (rich become richer, poorer become poorer)

• Continually expands means of production in pursuit of profit

Explain the dichotomy of capitalism

Soe`s the seeds of its own destruction:

• The increasely concentrated ownership of the means of production + proletarianization of the petty-bourgeoise increases class conciousness

• By placing the w/c as the producers of profit in society, they hold the material power within it

• This allows the w/c to shift from a class in itself (members that don`t hold the means of production) to a class for itself, able to overthrow capitalism

Explain Gramscis theory of r/c hegemony

• r/c prevent w/c becoming conscious of their exploitation (class conscious) through ruling-class ideology

• These are ideas that legitimate the existing social order (through the media, religion, education etc), eg blaming migrants for economic downturn, despite over 100,000 vacancies being present in the NHS, and over 1/3 of doctors being migrants

• Thus r/c are able to create a False consciousness among workers

• However this hegemony (dominance of ideas) is challenged by workers lived experience (eg miners some prejudice towards LGBT+ people was undermined by the solidarity they showed in the 1984 Miners strike), developing a Dual Consciousness (possessing both r/c and class conscious ideas)

• This can be developed further by a party of organic intellectuals (who have developed their ideas through struggle) who can work to spread class consciousness (through media and education of their own)

Evaluate Gramscis theory of r/c hegemony

Over emphasises importance of ideas. Eg a worker can see through bourgeoise ideology, but not act against it through fear of economic (loosing job) or political (eg prision) reprisal

Explain Althussers criticisms of the base-superstructure model

Rejects it as to deterministic, instead identifying 3 structures:

• Economic level: all activities that produce to satisfy needs

• Political level: all forms of organisation

• Ideological level: the way people see themselves and their world

Instead of one-way causality of base-superstructure model (with the former directly determining the latter), Althusser argues the latter two have relative autonomy, influenced, not determined by the former and are able to effect it (two-way causality)

Evaluate Althussers amended base-superstructure model

+ Criticizes both humanism and determinism

- Replaces economic determinism with a more complex, equally flawed for of “structural determinism”, in which society is determined by 3 structures as opposed to 1

- The emphasis on structure discourages political activism as ineffectual (actual point made in textbook)

What are the different types of Marxism?

• Humanistic/critical Marxism: Eg Gramsci, more political, voluntaristic analysis, relying on w/c organization to destroy capitalism (closer to that of social action & interpretivists theorists)

• Scientific/structuralist Marxism: Eg Althusser, more structural, determinists analysis relying on declining rate of profits to destroy capitalism (closer to positivist sociology)

Outline the main Marxist Feminist theories

• Engels, Ansley: Economic and ideological role of womens oppression

• Barrett, Mitchell: Ideology of familism

• Hartmann, Walby: Dual systems feminism

Which two sociologists contribute to the theory of Dual systems feminism?

Hartmann, Walby

Explain Hatmanns, Walby dual systems feminism

• Bridge Marxist & Radical feminist theory, identifying we live in both an economic system: Capitalism, & sex-gender system: Patriarchy

• This duality creating Patriarchal Capitalism

• These act in a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship, perpetuating one another

• Eg, Capitalism bars women entry into the workforce (keep them source of free DL), which sustains patriarchy by forces them into economic dependency upon a partner

• Walby: However, these systems interests sometimes conflict

• Eg, in periods of crisis (eg ww2) capitalism demands cheap female labour, resisted by patriarchal control (normally resulting in compromise on capitalisms terms, eg women allowed to work, but only in low status “womens jobs”, continuing their patriarchal subordination)

Evaluate Dual Systems feminism

Anna Pollert (1996):

• Patriarchy cant be viewed as a system in the same sense of capitalism, which is driven by a clear economic goal, profit

• By contrast, patriarchy is a descriptive term for a range of oppressive practices that oppress women, such as domestic violence, the gender pay gap etc

What role does the subordination of women play for capitalism?

Economic:

• Reserve army of labour: 2m women entered the workforce during WW2 - 1941 2nd Conscription Act (UK)

• Reproduce next gen of workers: Through unpaid DV, nurturing & socialising children for free

Ideological:

• Ansley - Takes of Shit: anger from alienation subjected against them, not capitalism

Which sociologist provides the main rebuttal to radical feminism?

Anna Pollert

Which sociologist theorises the ideology of familism?

Barretts

Outline Barretts theory of the ideology of familism

• We must understand capitalisms ideological, as well as economic subjugation (eg why women live in conventional NF when its a source of supression)

• This is due to “familism” which presents the family as the only avenue to meet expressive needs

• Mitchell adds this has become so deep routed within womens psych that an economic revolution would not be enough, with ideological change being central to dislodging capitalism

Outline the main radical feminist theories

• Germaine Greer: sexual politics and change

• Firestone: Underpinnings of radical feminism

What are the 3 underpinnings of radical feminism?

• Firestone - Patriarchy is universal: Women`s biological childbearing role makes them temporarily dependent on males, leading patriarchy to develop in all societies

• All men oppress all women: All men oppress from patriarchy, be directly through unpaid vs or indirectly through less competition in the job market

• Patriarchy is the fundamental form of inequality

Which radical feminist calls for matrilocal relationships?

Germaine Greer

Explain the radical feminist theory of sexual politics and change

• Womens exploitation is in every sphere, not only in the public sphere of work & politics, but also in the private sphere of the family

• Men do this through the threat of DV. Thus, all relationships are political, dual to the unequal power dynamics inherent within them (sexual politics)

• Therefore, these relationships must be transformed if women are to be free, with Germaine Greer arguing for the creation of all female “matrilocal” households and Consciousness-raising to expose the patriarchal system (MeToo movement)

What theorises underpin Liberal feminism

• Consensus, men and women benefit from increased equality (eg less female conformity to gender scripts also allows men to express more feminity)

• Difference: Gender is a social contruct of norms associated with sexes. Therefore, they can be different across culturals, as seen with the Hopi, two-spirit view of gender

Name a reformist feminist

Somerville

How do Liberal feminist theorise society can be changed?

Somerville:

Reformism is that current society can be reformed to enact change, without a need to change society iteself, therefore:

• Legal change (eg Equality Act)

• Cultural change (eg #Metoo movement 2017). As gender scripts are so socially engraned, important to create change at the base, eg in the family and education system

Name a Difference Feminist

Angela Davis

What theory underpins Difference feminism

• Feminism claims a false universality, not representing the experience of all women but rather white western ones (eg Angela Davis argues the family has acted as a source of support for some black women against racism)

Which women discourse as a source of power?

Judith Butler

What theory underpins Poststructural Feminism

Judith Butler:

• Discourse as a source of power: Discourse is the way we think/speak about something (eg religion, art, science etc)

• Those that define discourse are able to exert power over others, eg defining childbirth as medical condition it disempowers women

• This can be applied to Enlightenment project, which allowed old, white, m/c men to define the discourse to their own benefit

• Thus, due to the fluidity of identity, shaped by ever changing discourge, it is impossible to come up with a “Universal theory of womenhood”

What underlines Webers approach to sociology?

• Level of Cause: Structural factors that shape peoples behaviour

• Level of meaning: Interactionalist factors that explain the meaning/motivations behind behaviour

This can be seen in his study of the Protestant Work Ethic, where both a structural change in material conditions (eg development of coal) and interactionist change in meaning (eg work became a way of expressing religious devotion) contributed to the Industrial Revolution

Why does Weber delineate between types of action?

Because they provide us with a framework with which to understand the meaning actors have given to something

What are Webers 4 categories of social meaning?

• Instrumentally rational action: Actors pursue a goal in the most efficient way possible (regardless of its social ramifications), and is therefore complete rational (a Machiavellian approach, eg cutting wages to increase profit regardless of impact upon the workforce)

• Value rational action: Actors pursue a goal based on its desirability than is logical benefit. As the desire is more important than the method of achieving it, it the individual doesn’t mind how efficient the means are, and therefore not complete rational (eg going to Church to guarantee salvation)

• Traditional action: Habitual action, often automatic (therefore not rational)

•   Affectual action: Expresses emotion (therefore complete irrational)

Explain instrumentally rational action

Actors pursue a goal in the most efficient way possible (regardless of its social ramifications), and is therefore complete rational (a Machiavellian approach, eg cutting wages to increase profit regardless of impact upon the workforce)

Explain value-rational action

Actors pursue a goal based on its desirability than is logical benefit. As the desire is more important than the method of achieving it, it the individual doesn’t mind how efficient the means are, and therefore not complete rational (eg going to Church to guarantee salvation)

Explain traditional action

Habitual action, often automatic (therefore not rational)

Explain affectual action

Expresses emotion (therefore complete irrational)

Evaluate Webers theory of social action

Schutz (1972) argues that Weber’s view of action is too individualistic and cannot explain the shared nature of meaning

Tyologies quite random, follow no set pattern

Which sociologist evaluates Webers analysis of social action?

Schutz

What is the difference between Webers interactionism, and Symbolic interactionism?

While Weber sees interaction as just one wing of sociological understanding, Symbolic interactionalists see it as the defining factor in society

Explain Meads theory of Symbolic Interactionalism

• In the natural science, chemicals respond to stimuli mechanically and automatically, making it possible to establish cause-and-effect relationships

• However, humans, rather than responding automatically, interpret its meaning, and then choose how to respond (eg we can never know how a motorist will respond to a red light, with see it as something to stop for, something to drive through, take a left to avoid it)

• However, for society to function, we must be able to interpret others actors meanings, taking on the role of others (developed through imitative play)

• This not only allows us to understand others actions, but understand how others will view our actions (the generalised other) and thus shape them to fit society

• Thus, interactionism is the cornerstone of society

Which sociologist theorises the base theory for symbolic interactionalism?

Mead

Explain Thomas and Cooleys Labelling theory

• Thomas: If people define a situation as real (a label), then it will effect how we act, and thus have real consequences

• Eg 45% of Americans now believe the 2020 election was “stolen”, which led to the Jan 6th Insurrection

• Cooley: applies this to understand human interaction, put best in the statement "I am not who you think I am, I am not who I think I am, I am who I think you think I am"

• We use others as “looking glasses”, using the way they see us to see ourselves (eg, if you think lots of ppl view you as a bad person, you view yourself as a bad person)

• Thus interactionalism is central to sociology at is shows the independence of individuals shaped through self-meaning and action as opposed to societal structures

Which sociologist theorises Labelling theory? (not Becker)

Thomas

Which sociologist theorises the Looking Glass?

Cooley

Which sociologist theorises structuration?

Giddens

Which sociologists theories Phenomenology

Schultz

Explains Schultzs theory of Phenomenology

• A phenomenon is something only experience through our senses

• We attempt to organise these sensory experiences (typification) to provide order to the world around

• Thus, the social world is only possible with shared meanings- “speaking the same language”, making cooperation possible. These are developed in 2 ways

• Shared “life world”: stock of shared, “commonsense” typification’s (eg a red traffic light only ‘means’ stop because we all agree that it does) developed through socialisation

• “the natural attitude”: when the apparent reality of society is reaffirmed through lived experiences (eg posting a letter and it successfully reaching its destinations) reaffirming the assuming that the social world is real

• Therefore, Schultz identifies how the highly independent minds and experience of humans work to create a shared typology, and thus a cohesive society

Explain Giddens Structuration Theory

• There is a duality of structure, with both structural and action (he dubs agency) coexisting to define society (calling this duality Structuration)

• Language illustrates this

• A language is a structure, with sets of grammatic rules governing its use, thus constraining our behaviour and meaning (like one of Durkheims “Social facts”)

• However, language wouldn`t exist if people didn’t use it, therefore the structure is dependent upon individual action, proving Structuration

How does Giddens apply Structuration to understand social change

Social action reinforces structure because:

• Societies rules (a structure) teach certain sets of ideas. By nature of learning them, we are more likely to use, and reproduce them (if you grow up in a society with money, we`re unlike to barter)

• Need for Ontological security - a need to feel the world physically & socially ensures social order, encouraging action that support its structure

Social action changes structure because:

• We reflexively monitor- reflecting upon our actions, allowing us to take social action and change structures when they appear problematic

• Our social action may inadvertently create social change. Eg Protestants trying to veneration God improved the conditions for Capitalistic relationships of production

What are the main Postmodernist theorises and theorists?

• Lyotard - Anti-Foundationalism

• Baudrillard - Simulacra

What are the key features that make modernity different from previous societies?

• Nation-State

• Capitalism

• Rationality, science and technology

• Individualism

What are the main changes brought about by globalisation?

• Political: Beck - Global Risk Society

• Economic: Harvey - Post-fordism

• Cultural: Ronald Robertson - Glocalisation

Postmodernity attempts to explain these changes

What theories underline Postmodernity?

• Lyotard - Anti-Foundationalism: A relativist perspective arguing that knowledge cant be guaranteed. Thus, all meta-narratives can only be a version of reality, and the Enlightenment Project of scientific innovation has failed

• Thus, society is now defined by instability, fragmentation and consumption

Which sociologist theorised Anti-Foundationalism?

Lyotard

Which sociologist theorised the Simulacra?

Baudrillard

Explain Baudrillards theory of the Simulacra

• Society`s no longer based on production of physical products, rather the buying/selling of knowledge in the form of signs/images

• These signs stand for nothing other than themselves, rather than being based in reality (simulacrums)

• Eg, tabloid newspapers about fictitious soap opera characters are ‘signs about signs’ rather than about an underlying reality

• Thus, mainly due to the pervasive, ever changing nature of the media, we`re in a state of hyper-reality, in which signs appear more real than reality itself, blurring the boundaries between image/reality

• Therefore, confronted by so many ideas, we are unable to discern the objective truth

• This explains the political, cultural & identity based instability and fluidity of postmodern society

Evaluate Baudrillards theory of Simulacra

+ Explains how 45% of US believe the 2020 election was stolen

- Baudrillard took this to the point of conspiracy, arguing the Gulf War only played out in the media

Thus somewhat useful, but theory taken to far

What theories underpin Late modernism?

Rather than the underlying system changing, already present features of modern society are intensifying. Eg social change has always been a reality of modern society, but the pace of said change has increased

What are the two main theorises, and theorists of Late modernism?

• Giddens: Disembeddedness and Reflexivity

• Beck: Global Risk Society, and Reflexive Modernisation

Explain Giddens theory of Disembeddedness and Reflexivity

Rapid change is driven by two features seen in late modern societies driven by:

• Disembeddedness: “The lifting out of social relations from local contexts.” In this way, geographic barriers have been broken down, as technology means face-to-face interactions arent needed, allowing social change to spread faster around the world.

• Reflexive: Because tradition no longer tells us how to act. Thus, change is increased as we constantly monitor our actions in light of new info.

Explain Becks theory of a Global risk society

• Global risk society: Increased globalisation now means risk takes place on a global scale (eg increased economic interconnectedness means that financial crise take place on a global scale).

• Exacerbated by increased internconnectedness of the media, which creates moral panics on a global scale.

• Beck applies this to Giddens theory of reflexivity, with not just dismebeddedness, but also increased global risk contributing to it, what Beck calls reflexive modernisation

Evaluate Late Modernism

+ Identifies how society can undergo change, without the fundamental structure of societies changing

- Rustin: Capitalism and its pursit of profit at all cost is the source of risk, and therefore indemnifying technology as the cause misses the point

Which sociologist rebuts Late Modernism?

Rustin

Compare the Marxist analysis of postmodernity to Late Modernity and Postmodernity

• Similarities to LM: Believes in Enlightenment Project of achieving objective knowledge, using it to improve society

• Differences to LM, similarities to PM: We have moved into a postmodern society, agreeing that the shift in media, diversity and instability is due to a fundamental change

• Differences to PM: See Postmodernity as a new, post-Fordist phase of capitalism

Which sociologist develops a Marxist analysis of Postmodernism?

Harvey

Explain Harveys Marxist theory of Postmodernity

• Within Capitalism, their is the tendancy for the rate of profit to decline (eg less natural resources) leading to crisis (1970s)

• Thus, the system shifted to a “”, with a dual strategy of deregulation (eg requiring workers to be “flexible” and fit needs of employee- gig-economy) + increasing consumption (commodifying cultural/idenitity to create new realms of profit- eg Pride used as avertisign events)

• Said changes had ramifications for the cultural characteristics in society (due to its role as the superstructure)

• Eg diversity increased due to demands for labour in new places, eg tech boom in Silicon Valley

• Thus, postmodernity acts a more developed form of capitalism, commodifying every aspect of life, including identity itself

• This explains economic (shift to Post-fordism, less secure model), identity based (commodification), and political (fragmentation of w/c) insecurity

Evaluate the Marxist theory of Postmodernity

Overemphasises the degree to which relations of production have changed (eg still large collective workplace