UWorld Demographics and Social Structure

Organizations

Social structures composed of individuals linked by specific purposes, tasks, and/or common goals.

Normative Organization

Membership is based on shared goals and/or values. (Church congregations and sororities)

Utilitarian Organization

Membership is driven by compensation like money or a diploma/certification. (Paid employment or University studies)

Coercive Organization

Membership is not freely chosen (prisoners) or maintained (military service members must be discharged).

Social Stratification

A system of inequality in which individuals are hierarchically ranked into social classes with different access to resources and oppuortunities.

Class Consciousness

Is the recognition of class structure and identification of one’s own social status

“This article does not consider how hard it is for people in my social class to find a doctor”

False Consciousness

Refers to individuals from lower classes adopting misleading messages from the upper class.

“This articles is right my poor health is all my fault”

Caste System

Individual social status is ascribed from birth. Social groupings are rigid and social mobility is difficult.

Class System

Individual social status is at least partially achieved through merit (ability and hard work). Social groupings are flexible/fluid and social mobility is possible.

Aggregate

A collection of shared individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group. (All the people in a cafe at 11 AM)

Subculture

Distinct from the dominant culture but is still aligned with the general norms and values of the dominant culture.

Social Constructionism

Reality is created through shared meanings and definitions arising from social interactions.

Structural Functionalism

Social structures maintain equilibrium (homeostasis) in society.

Conflict Theory

Inequalities between social classes cause conflict.

Symbolic Interactionism

A micro sociological perspective that suggests that people develop subjective meanings for things (objects and behaviors) through social interactions.

Modernization

The transition of society due to industrialization, results in religion losing importance in society.

Secularization

Refers to the diminishing social/political influence of religion in society. Fundamentalism is a reaction to secularization and refers to renewed adherence to strict, traditional religious beliefs and practices by some individuals.

Religious Affiliation vs Religiosity

Describes an individual identifying with a specific religious group, whereas religiosity (religiousness) is the degree to which an individual internalizes and incorporates the religion in their lives, as demonstrated by the individual’s beliefs and behaviors. (A Jew that is very devout)

Observational Studies

Conducted when it is unfeasible or unethical to manipulate a variable of interest.

Manifest Functions (Functionalism)

Intended, obvious purpose of a social structure (teaching facts and skills is a manifest function of the education system)

Latent Functions (Functionalism)

Unintended result of a social structure (Contributing to social inequality is a latent function of the education system)

Power

The ability to control and influence others

Authority

Whether others believe one’s power is legitimate

Traditional Authority

Comes from longstanding patterns in society (a queen is seen as having legitimate power in a monarchy)

Charismatic Authority

Stems from the personal appeal and/or extraordinary claims of an individual (Gandhi was seen as having legitimate power due to his ability to inspire people)

Rational Legal Authority

Arises from the professional position a person holds (a doctor is seen as having power because of training)

Gentrification

A process of urban redevelopment of lower income neighborhoods that occurs with an influx of higher income residents. Gentrification causes an increase in housing prices, which forces lower income residents to move (displacement).

Bureaucracy

The most efficient and rational way to organize human behavior.

McDonaldization

The process by which extreme efficiency and rationalization produce negative consequences.

Efficiency: Produces optimization at the cost of individuality

Calculability: Produces high quantities at an expense of quality

Predictability: Produces standardization at the expense of uniqueness

Control: Increases automation, reducing the need for skilled work force.

Cultural Capital

The nonfinancial and nonsocial network assets that confer advantage in societ (a degree from a well respected university)

Formal Curriculum

Explicit, official content taught through the educational system (algebra, physics, and chemistry)

Hidden Curriculum

Implicit, unofficial information conveyed through the educational system (Boys are better at math than girls)

Teacher Expectancy

When a teacher’s belief about a student (“she is smart/lazy”) result in the student meeting those expectations (excelling or performing poorly)

Observational Analysis

Refers to the observation of behavior in its natural setting, rather than in an artificial setting like a laboratory.

Content Analysis

Involves systematic coding and interpretation of human communication (online media), Social movements are organized collective actins that are sustained (lasting weeks to years) and meant to produce social change.

Sick Role Theory

A functionalist approach describing how disruption to typical social change (work) caused by illness is minimized through the sick role, which legitimizes illness as socially acceptable behavior.

The Illness Experience

A symbolic interactionist approach to understanding how people incorporate and make sense of illness as part of their self identity and day routines.

Life Course Approach

Approach to illness is holistic and multidisciplinary, examining the cumulative effect of psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime on health outcomes.

Optimal Arousal Theory

Suggests than an optimal level of physiological or mental arousal maximizes performance, (Test performance declines with too little or too much arousal)

Incentive Theory

External rewards (money) motivate individuals to engage behavior resulting in the most desirable outcomes

Frustration Aggression Theory

Abuse within families can take, including physical violence, emotional harm, neglect, and/or isolation. The frustration aggression theory proposes that individuals exhibit aggression as a result of frustration. (having a goal or effort blocked or defeated)

Sociological Approaches to Aging

Activity: Remaining socially and physically active improves quality of life for older adults.

Continuity: Older adults attempt to maintain habits and behaviors of their youth.

Disengagement: Older adults withdraw from social relationships and society as society withdraws from them

Life Course: Aging viewed holistically in terms of social, biological, cultural and physiological contexts.

Dependency Ratio

The ratio of the number of dependents (people who are too old or too young to work) to the number of productive members in society. The higher the dependency ratio, the more the pressure there is on working age members of society to support dependents.

Conflict Theory

A macro sociological perspective focusing on how the unequal distribution of resources in society leads to conflict between groups.

Social Exchange Theory

Describes human interaction as resulting from people’s perceptions of what they invest in a relationship and what they get out of it.

Optimum Population

A demographic theory regarding the ideal population size, which is the number of people yielding the highest per capita income given the country’s level of wealth, knowledge, and tech resources.

Demographic Transition Theory

Societies progress through stages marked by characteristic changes in birth rate, death rate, and population size. Stage 1 has a high birth/death rate and small population size, stage 2 has a declining death rate and increasing population size, stage 3 has declining birth rates, and stage 4 has low birth/death rates, and stage 5 has a declining population size.

Population Pyramids

Depict a given population by a given age cohort and gender.

Expanding Pyramid: Birth rate is high, death rate is high, life expectancy is short, and the population size increases. (Triangle)

Stationary Pyramid: Birth rate is low, death rate is low, life expectancy is long, and the population size is stable. (hill)

Contacting Pyramid: Birth rate is low, death rate is low, life expectancy is long, and the population size is decreasing. (diamond)

Fertility Rate

A measure of the number of people being added to a given population through birth as opposed to immigration.

Total Fertility Rate TFR

The average number of children born per woman during her lifetime.

Crude Birth Rate CBR

The number of live births per year for every 1000 members of a population, regardless of sex and age.

General Fertility Rate GFR

The total number of live births per year for every 1000 women of childbearing age in a population. A better measure of fertility than CBR because it accounts for age and sex ratio in the population.

Age Specific Fertility Rate ASFR

The number of live births per year for 1000 women in a certain age group in a population.

Qualitative Study Methods

Information gathered subjectively to determine if there are patterns or themes. Best used for studying complex processes.such as human social behavior. (Ethnography and focus group)

Quantitative Study Methods

Data collected objectively and analyzed statistically to answer a specific question. Best used for determining relationships between definable variables. (Randomized controlled and correlation study)

Spatial Inequality

The unequal geographical distribution of wealth resulting in the concentration of health compromising factors (pollution, crime) in lower income neighborhoods.

Social Network Analysis

An epidemiological technique mapping connections between individuals to study the spread of communicable diseases in population.

Ethnography

Scientifically studies individuals in their own communities to learn about culture, norms, and values within an area.

Hawthorne Effect

Describes research subjects acting differently as a result of knowing that they are being observed.

Globalization

The process by which the tangibles (products) and intangibles (values and ideas) spread across the world as a result of advances in technology and communication.

World Systems Theory

An economic theory of globalization that views the world as a global economy where some countries benefit at the expense of others.

Core Nations

Are wealthy with strong, diversified economies and centralized governments, core nations ( The United States and European Countries ) take resources (exploit) from poorer countries and lead the global economic market through the export of goods around the world.

Periphery Nations

Poor and have weak governments and economies. Periphery nations (Latin and African countries) rely on the export of resources (oil, coffee, labor) to wealthier countries, making them dependent on and exploited by core nations.

Semi Periphery Nations

(India and Brazil) Are between periphery and core nations with slightly better economies.

Demographic Transition Model Stages

A society’s transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates.

Stage 1: preindustrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population growth is slow.

Stage 2: as societies begin to industrialize, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase, and population growth is rapid.

Stage 3: As societies begin to urbanize, the population continues to grow but birth rates begin to decline as contraception increases

Stage 4: In developed societies, birth rates and death rates are both low and population growth Is slow

Stage 5:For high developed societies with very low birth rates the population declines

Structural Functionalism

A macro level sociological perspective proposing that social institutions work together to maintain societal balance (dynamic equilibrium). Social institutions have manifest (intended functions) and and latent (unintended functions).

Division of Labor

Refers to the specialization of employment into independent jobs. The division of labor has positive consequences (increased specialization, efficiency, reduced costs) and negative consequences (labor exploitation, increased boredom, and reduced quality).

Intersectionality

Suggests that for each individual, multiple social identities (age, gender, class, race) intersect to impact one’s life, perspective, and treatment by others in society.

Feminist Theory

Explains the differences in power between males/masculinity and females/femininity (gender inequality). Feminist theory examines both macro level of social structures as well as micro level factors such as individual prejudice and discrimination

Migration Patterns

Migration patterns track the movement of people from one country to another. People tend to emigrate from (leave) poorer countries and immigrate (relocate) to wealthier countries. Push factors (war) drive emigration, whereas pull factors (economic opportunity) drive immigration. Migration fertility (birth) rate and mortality (death) rate impact the size and demographics of a population.

Racialization

The process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity based on shared group qualities like physical attributes (skin pigmentation) or behaviors (religious practices). The designating group has more social power (dominant group) and exerts social control over the designated group which has less social power (subordinatae group).

Stereotype Threat

Occurs when task performance suffers as a result of being made aware before the task of a negative stereotype about which the group belongs (black people are bad at math makes black boy do bad in math)

Social Constructionism

Reality is created through interactions, resulting in agreed on shared meanings. Objects (money), behaviors (hand shake), and categories (gender) only have meaning because individuals in society agree on that meaning

Social Construct

Money has value in society only because everyone has agreed that it has value.

Factors Contributing to Negative Health Outcomes

1. Economic (Poverty, unemployment, and debt)

2. Physical Environment (Crime, pollution, and environmental risks)

3. Educational (Literacy, language barriers, and lack of education)

4. Social (Discrimination and lack of support)

5. Health Care (Access, availability, equity and quality)

   These factors lead to negative health outcomes (Increases morbidity, mortality, functional limitations, and health care costs (Decreases life expectancy and quality of life)

Relative Poverty

Individuals meeting the criteria for relative period do not have enough money or resources compared to other members of a society and are unable to meet the standards of living, including routine medical care,

Determinants of an Individual’s Health

1. Physical Environment (Ambient Stressors like pollution, noise, and access to nutrition and transportation)

2. Social Environment (Education, discrimination, crime, and family structures)

3. Economic Environment (Income, wealth, employment, and economic prosperity)

4. Lifestyle (Diet, physical activity, drug and alcohol use, and sexual activity)

Question Order Bias

Results from the placement of survey or questionnaire questions, the order of which can potentially impact the results (order effects).

Role Strain

Competing expectations within a single role create tension (A student struggles to find enough time to complete homework (expectation 1) and attend student government meetings (expectation 2)

Role Conflict

Competing expectations for two or more roles create tension. (A student (role 1) who is employed part time (role 2) struggles to find enough time to complete homework and work late hours.

Social Exchange Theory

A microsociological perspective of human interactions, which proposes that any given interaction between people is the result of a calculated effort by all parties to maximize personal benefit and minimize personal cost.

Socioeconomic Gradient

A positive correlation between socioeconomic status (SES) and health outcomes. On average, individuals with a lower SES tend to have worse health outcomes then those with higher SES.

Spatial Inequality

Residentially segregated. low income neighborhoods have more crime, violence, pollution, and environmental health risk factors (spatial inequality). Attributions are explanations for behaviors and can be dispositional/personal (based on internal characteristics) or situational/environmental (based on external characteristics)

Social Control

The exertion of influence by a group (society, family) to ensure that the behavior of individuals conform to the group.

Social Exclusion

The marginalization of individuals so that they are unable to participate in society economically (through earning or spending money), social (through interaction with others), or civically (through political or other community engagement)

Educational Stratification

The social mechanisms that produce inequality in educational access (school options) and outcomes (graduation rates)

Social Stratification

The hierarchal organization of individuals in society based on social class (economic assets like income and property), social status (prestige/reputation among others in society), and power (ability to exert control over the actions of others)

Absolute Poverty vs Relative Poverty

Absolute poverty is the inability to secure basic life necessities (food and shelter). Relative poverty is defined as the comparison to the economic conditions of others, is the inability to meet standards of the society in which one lives (inability to afford a car if most others in society have a car)

Experimental Studies

Randomized Control Studies: Random allocation into treatment and placebo groups. Can determine the efficacy of the intervention.

Nonrandom Design: Nonrandom allocation into treatment and placebo groups. Can determine the efficacy of the intervention.

Observational Studies

Longitudinal Studies: Data gathered at multiple time points and can assess risk factors or outcomes

Cross Sectional: Data gathered at one point in time. Can determine prevalence of an outcome in a population.

Case-Control Studies: Data gathered from individuals with the condition of interest (cases) and compared to individuals without the conditions (controls)

Case Studies: Detailed information gathered by one individual or a small group of individuals

Sick Role Theory (Talcott Parsons)

Rights

1. Exemption from normal social roles and responsibilities.

2. Lack of accountability for illness.

   Obligations

3. Must attempt to get well.

4. Must seek and comply with treatment.

Bipolar Disorders

Characterized by mania: an elevated or irritable mood, feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), and risky behaviors. They also experience depressive episodes: feelings of sadness/hopelessness, lack of interest in activities, sleep disturbances, and thoughts of suicide and death,

The Biomedical Model

Emphasizes the role of the physician and medical system in diagnosing and treating disease, and assumes the patient will play a passive role.

Biomedical Approach

The biomedical approach to mental illness emphasizes the diagnoses of physiological causes (abnormal brain chemistry) by physicians and the treatment of symptoms using drugs. This approach has helped many, but it has not been effective for everyone: its narrow focus ignores other factors related to illness, and drug treatment can produce harmful side effects.

Availability Heuristic

How easily something comes to memory (assuming shark attacks are common after seeing one in the news)

Representativeness Heuristic

How well something matches a mental prototype (assuming a women dressed in scrubs is a nurse instead of a surgeon)

Belief Perseverance

Occurs when one refuses to be influenced in the face of convincing evidence. The original belief is maintained despite new information to the contrary.

Illness Experience

A symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with a chronic illnesses that impact daily life and self identity.

Illness work involves gathering information about one’s illness, seeking treatment, medication, and other illness related activities.

Everyday work involves other daily activities that do not involve one’s illness (managing household)

Biographical work involves making sense of the illness for oneself and others (explaining illness to coworkers, friends, and family)