Evolutionary Explanations Of Human Aggression

What is an evolutionary explanation?

An account of the changes in species over millions of years based on the idea of natural selection - any behaviour that enhances survival and ultimately successful reproduction is perpetuated.

What is sexual jealousy a major motivator of?

Aggressive behaviour in males which can be given an evolutionary explanation.

What is the evolutionary explanation of sexual jealousy in men?

Jealousy occurs because men, unlike women, can never be totally sure about whether or not they are their child’s parent. This paternity uncertainty is a result of the very real threat for the male of cuckholdry.

What is cuckholdry?

A man having to raise offspring that is not his own.

What is any involvement in offspring who do not share the male’s genes a waste of?

His resources, it contributes to survival of a rival’s genes and leaves the ‘father‘ with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring.

In our evolutionary past, which men were more reproductively successful?

Those who could avoid cuckoldry.

What have psychological mechanisms evolved as a means of increasing?

Anti-cuckholdry behaviours in males. For instance, sexual jealousy is more strongly experienced in males than females.

What does sexual jealousy drive?

The often aggressive strategies men employ to retain their partners and prevent them from ‘straying‘. These strategies were adaptive in our evolutionary history.

What did Wilson and Daly identify?

Several mate retention studies which involve aggression and even physical violence, including:

• Direct guarding.

• Negative inducements.

What does direct guarding involve?

Male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour, for example checking who they’ve been seeing, coming home early, keeping tabs on their whereabouts, installing tracking apps on their mobiles, ect.

What are negative inducements?

These could involve issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity (‘i’ll kill myself if you leave me‘).

What was the procedure of Wilson et al.?

They asked women to report mate retention strategies with their partners, which was measured in terms of the extent to which they agreed with statements like ‘he insists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times‘.

What were the findings of Wilson et al.?

Women who did agree with such statements were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence at the hands of their partners. Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives. This supports the view that mate retention strategies are linked to physical violence.

Why does bullying occur?

Because of a power imbalance - a more powerful individual uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly against a weaker person.

What have researchers traditionally viewed bullying as?

A maladaptive behaviour, for example the result of poor social skills or social abuse.

What may our evolutionary ancestors have used bullying as?

An adaptive strategy to increase their chances of survival by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction.

What do Volk et al. argue?

That the characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to females - dominance, acquisition of resources, and strength.

What other benefits can bullying have?

It wards off potential rivals, therefore such bullying behaviour would be naturally selected because these males would have greater reproductive success. Bullying may even benefit the bully’s health.

What are adolescent boys who gain a reputation for being tough less likely to experience?

Aggression themselves as other boys avoid contact with them. This benefits their health as those at the top of a dominance hierarchy experience less stress.

In females, where does bullying more often take place?

Within a relationship and is a method of controlling a partner.

What do women use bullying behaviour to do?

To secure their partner’s fidelity, which means they continue to provide resources for future offspring. Such behaviour would be naturally selected because of enhanced reproductive success.

What are the strengths of the evolutionary explanation?

• Gender differences.

• Real-world application.

How are gender differences a strength of evolutionary explanations?

Evolutionary theory can explain why males and females differ in their uses of aggression:lots of research shows that there are gender differences in aggression. Such differences could be due to socialisation but some can be explained in terms of adaptive strategies. For example, Campbell argues that it is not adaptive for a female with offspring to be physically aggressive because such behaviour would put her own survival at risk and that of her child. So a more adaptive strategy for females is to use verbal aggression to retain a partner who provides resources. This would explain why women tend to display verbal rather than physical aggression.

What do gender differences mean?

That therefore, such arguments can provide support for the evolutionary approach to explaining aggression.

How is real-world application a strength of evolutionary explanations?

Evolutionary explanations can be used to reduce bullying. One approach to reducing bullying is to address a bully's perceived deficiencies (assuming that they bully because they feel inferior). However, although there are several interventions based on this assumption, bullying is still prevalent. Ellis et al. suggest an alternative strategy based on the view that bullying is adaptive (i.e. bullies stand to gain advantages for themselves). The 'meaningful roles anti-bullying intervention aims to increase the costs of bullying and the rewards of prosocial alternatives. For example, by giving bullies roles and responsibilities in school that provide an alternative source of status.

What does the real-world application mean?

That therefore viewing bullying as an adaptive behaviour may lead to more effective anti-bullying interventions.

What is the limitation of the evolutionary explanation?

Cultural differences.

How are cultural differences a limitation of evolutionary explanations?

Far from being universal, there are some cultures where aggression appears to be almost non-existent. For example, the !Kung San people of western Botswana in Africa were studied by the anthropologist Thomas who called them the 'Harmless People'. She found they have very negative attitudes towards the use of aggression. Aggressive behaviour is discouraged from childhood in both boys and girls and is therefore rare. Those who do use it have their status and reputation within the community diminished. Cultural and social norms powerfully constrain aggressive behaviour in this society.

What do cultural differences mean?

That therefore, since some cultures do not show aggressiveness, such behaviour may not necessarily be adaptive.

What is the counterpoint to the cultural differences?

However, there is a lot of controversy over how 'harmless' the !Kung really are. For example, Lee described the homicide rate as surprisingly high for such a peaceable people. These contradictions in findings may be due to the fact that what an observer 'sees' is biased by their own expectations and also by the particular sample of people they observe.

What does the counterpoint to the culture differences mean?

These methodological issues mean that observations by 'outsiders' may not be useful (lacks validity).