Geography Lecture Review: Essentials of Geography, Solar Energy and Seasons, Atmosphere, and Circulations

Vocabulary flashcards based on lecture notes covering essentials of geography, solar energy and seasons, atmospheric structure and function, and atmospheric and oceanic circulations.

Physical geography

The study of the systems that make up the natural environment (weather, climate, landforms, biogeography).

Geography (etymology)

Derived from 'Geo' (earth) and 'graphein' (to write).

Human geography

A geographic subfield focusing on culture, politics, economics, and population.

Scientific Process

A method to answer spatial questions, involving observation, hypothesis, testing with data, sharing results, and theory.

Systems Theory

A framework for understanding how interrelated components are linked by flows of matter and energy.

Systems

A set of interrelated components linked by flows of matter and energy.

Matter

Mass that assumes a physical shape and occupies space.

Energy

The capacity to do work on matter and matter; processes that are happening.

Open System

A system that exchanges matter and energy with its environment; flow in and out of the system. Example: boiling water.

Closed System

A self-contained system with no physical matter exchange with the environment, though energy can flow in and out. Example: Earth (regarding mass).

Negative Feedback

A system response that stabilizes and discourages change.

Positive Feedback

A system response that amplifies change. Example: ice-albedo effect.

Spatial Scale

Refers to the geographic extent of a system, from local to global.

Temporal Scale

Refers to the time duration over which a system operates, from minutes to years.

Steady-state equilibrium

A condition where a system fluctuates around a stable average state.

Threshold tipping point

A point at which a fundamental system change occurs.

Atmosphere (Earth's sphere)

A thin layer of gases surrounding Earth.

Hydrosphere

Water in all forms and locations on Earth.

Lithosphere

Includes the Earth's crust and upper mantle.

Biosphere

All living organisms on Earth.

Latitude

Angular distance north or south of the equator (horizontal lines).

Longitude

Angular distance east or west of the prime meridian (vertical lines).

Time Zones

Based on longitude, with Earth rotating 15 degrees per hour.

Cartography

The science and art of mapmaking.

GIS (Geographic Information System)

A computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing spatial data.

Remote sensing

Collecting data via satellites or aircraft.

Digital cartography

Combines mapping with real-time spatial analysis.

Perihelion

The point in Earth's elliptical orbit where it is closest to the Sun (in January).

Aphelion

The point in Earth's elliptical orbit where it is farthest from the Sun (in July).

The Sun

The primary energy source that fuels most atmospheric and biosphere processes through fusion reactions.

Sunspots

Magnetic storms that appear as dark areas on the Sun; more sunspots generally mean more solar radiation.

Solar Winds

Clouds of electrically charged particles emitted by the Sun that interact with Earth's magnetosphere, producing auroras.

Electromagnetic Radiation

Waves with electrical and magnetic properties emitted by the Sun, traveling through space.

Electromagnetic spectrum

Captures all different wavelengths of electromagnetic energy.

Shortwave radiation

Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun, including visible light.

Longwave radiation

Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Earth, primarily infrared light.

Insolation

Incoming solar radiation intercepted by Earth, measured in watts/m^2.

Solar constant

The average insolation received at the top of the atmosphere.

Subsolar point

The only place where insolation arrives directly to the surface, located at 23.5 degrees N/S.

Net Radiation

The balance between incoming shortwave and outgoing longwave radiation, driving atmospheric and oceanic circulations.

Seasonality

The change in insolation throughout a given year, influenced by Sun altitude and daylength, due to Earth's tilt.

Sun altitude

The angle between the horizon and the Sun.

Daylength

The duration of the amount of sunlight.

Revolution (Earth)

Earth's 365.2-day elliptical orbit around the Sun; does not create seasonality.

Rotation (Earth)

The turning of Earth on its own axis every 24 hours, determining daylength and apparent deflection.

Circle of illumination

The line that divides areas experiencing day and night, resulting in 12 hours each at the equinoxes.

Tilt (Earth's axis)

Earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees, making it the most important orbital parameter for seasons.

Winter Solstice

Occurs in December; Sun is directly overhead at 23.5 degrees South, Northern Hemisphere receives less intense insolation.

Vernal Equinox

Occurs in March; Sun is directly overhead at the Equator, all locations experience 12 hours of day/night.

Summer Solstice

Occurs in June; Sun is directly overhead at 23.5 degrees N, Northern Hemisphere receives more intense insolation.

Autumnal Equinox

Occurs in September; Sun is directly overhead at the Equator, all locations experience 12 hours of day/night.

Constant gases

Atmospheric gases like nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and argon, which are stable over time.

Variable gases

Atmospheric gases like water vapor, CO2, ozone, and methane, critical for energy balance due to the greenhouse effect.

Particulates

Solid or liquid particles in the atmosphere, such as dust, soot, pollen, ash, sea salt, and water droplets, important for cloud formation.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of the atmosphere (0–12 km) where weather occurs and temperature decreases with altitude.

Stratosphere

The atmospheric layer (12–50 km) containing the ozone layer, where temperature increases with altitude.

Mesosphere

The atmospheric layer (50–80 km) known as the coldest layer, where meteors burn up.

Thermosphere

The outermost atmospheric layer (80+ km) where high-energy solar radiation is absorbed, causing temperatures to increase, but air density is very low.

Ionosphere

A functional layer within the thermosphere/mesosphere that absorbs cosmic rays, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Ozonosphere

A functional layer within the stratosphere (the ozone layer) that absorbs harmful UV radiation.

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)

Chemical compounds identified as destroying stratospheric ozone, leading to the ozone hole.

Montreal Protocol (1987)

An international agreement that banned CFCs, leading to the slow recovery of the ozone layer.

Natural sources (pollutants)

Sources of atmospheric pollutants like volcanoes (SO₂), wildfires (soot, gases), and dust storms.

Anthropogenic sources (pollutants)

Human-caused sources of atmospheric pollutants, such as cars and industry (NO₂, CO₂, smog).

Temperature inversions

Atmospheric conditions that trap pollutants near the surface.

Air Quality Index (AQI)

A measure of pollutant concentration (ozone, particulate matter, CO, SO₂, NO₂) indicating health risks.

Clean Air Act

A U.S. law passed in 1963, expanded in 1970 and 1990, that regulates emissions of air pollutants.

Scattering (solar radiation)

Radiation redirection by gases/particles without wavelength change, bouncing light in different directions.

Reflection (solar radiation)

Radiation bouncing directly back to space.

Albedo

The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface, where 0 means absorbed and 1 means reflected.

Absorption (solar radiation)

The process where molecules take in radiation and convert it to heat, occurring in the atmosphere or at Earth's surface.

Earth's energy balance

The equilibrium between incoming solar, shortwave radiation and outgoing Earth's reflected shortwave and emitted longwave radiation.

Greenhouse effect

The process where certain gases (water vapor, CO2, CH4) trap heat by absorbing longwave radiation and reradiating some back to Earth, causing warming.

Cloud albedo forcing

Thick, low clouds acting as mirrors, reflecting sunlight back to space, thus causing cooling.

Cloud greenhouse forcing

Thin, high clouds acting as blankets, trapping outgoing heat inside the Earth, causing warming.

Latent heat of evaporation

Heat or energy absorbed by water when evaporating and released into the atmosphere upon condensation (e.g., in clouds and rain).

Sensible heat

Direct transfer of heat from Earth's surface into the rising air above via conduction and convection.

Radiation (heat transfer)

Energy transferred as electromagnetic waves.

Conduction (heat transfer)

Heat transfer via direct contact.

Convection (heat transfer)

Vertical movement of warm or cool air.

Advection (heat transfer)

Horizontal transfer of air masses.

Temperature

The average kinetic energy of molecules.

Absolute zero

The theoretical point at which there is no molecular motion.

Thermometers

Instruments used to measure temperature (e.g., mercury, alcohol, digital).

Thermistors

Electrical resistance sensors used to measure temperature.

Radiosondes

Balloons equipped with instruments for measuring vertical temperature profiles.

Latitude (temperature control)

The most important factor controlling sun angle and day length, influencing temperature variation.

Elevation (temperature control)

Higher altitudes generally have cooler temperatures due to thinner air losing heat quickly.

Marine effect

The moderating influence of water on coastal climates, causing water to heat/cool slowly.

Continentality

The tendency of interiors of continents to experience more extreme temperatures due to the absence of water's moderating effect.

Specific heat (water vs. land)

Water requires four times more energy than land to heat by the same amount.

Transparency and mixing (water)

Sunlight penetrates deeper in water, and mixing distributes heat throughout the water body.

Cloud cover (temperature control)

Moderates temperature, leading to cooler days and warmer nights.

Isotherms

Lines connecting points of equal temperature on a map.

Energy surplus (tropics)

Lower latitude regions where incoming solar energy exceeds outgoing energy.

Energy deficit (poles)

Higher latitude regions where outgoing energy exceeds incoming solar energy.

Wind

Horizontal movement of air caused by differences in air pressure.

Prevailing winds

The dominant wind direction of a specific region.

Anemometer

An instrument used to measure wind speed.

Wind vane

An instrument used to measure wind direction.