psychology
the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes
4 goals of psychology
description, explanation, prediction, influence
what is a theory?
general principle, organizes facts, guides scientific research, and always falsifiable
basic vs applied research
basic - seeks new knowledge, advances general scientific understanding applied - applying research to life, solving practical problems
Naturalistic Observation
-observe and record behaviour in natural setting -no attempt to influence or control behaviour
Laboratory Observation
-observe behaviours in controlled environment -less spontaneity of behaviour and results
Cast Study Method
-one or few participants -in depth study usually over time -study common psychological or physiological disorders
Survey Research
-use interviews, questionnaires -obtain information about: attitudes, beliefs, experiences of a group -can show changes in attitudes and behaviours over time -respondents may provide inaccurate information
Correlation Method
-establish relationship between 2 characteristics, events or behaviours -useful in making predictions -cannot determine cause (positive correlation, negative correlation, no correlation)
experimental vs control group
Exp - participants exposed to independent variable Control - exposed to same experimental environment, not given IV (treatment), used for comparison
selection bias
error in choosing the individuals or groups to take part in study, systematic differences among groups present at beginning of experiment
placebo effect
response to treatment due to expectations, rather than treatment
experimenter bias
preconceived expectations influence participants or interpretation of results
double-blind technique
unknown who is in treatment or control group
research issues
avoid ageism, sexism, human participants, cultural bias etc.
reliability vs validity
reliability - consistency of a test validity - test's ability to measure what it is intended to measure
structuralism
-analyze basic elements/structure of conscious mental experience -introspection method (looking into one's self) of self observation seen as not objective
functionalism
based on the assumption that all mental process are useful to an organism in adapting to the environment (strong impact from Charles Darwin)
behaviourism
theory that states that all behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment through conditioning
psychoanalysis
unseen, unconscious mental forces key to understanding human behaviour (emphasis on sexual and aggressive behaviour)
3 processes in memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
sensory memory
holds information from senses, fraction of second to several seconds (what we selectively attend to, will stick in our heads)
short term memory
-codes information -draws out info already stored in memory -connecting new memory to old memory -can store info in semantic form (meaning)
working memory
memory for intermediate results that must be held during thinking, temporary storage structure and process
measuring memory
recall, recognition, relearning
schemas
framework of knowledge, assumptions about people, objects, events
distortion
alter memory to fit beliefs, expectations, logic, prejudices
eyewitness testimony
account a bystander or victim gives, often subject to error
flashbulb memory
extremely vivid memory, recall conditions when hear news of surprising, shocking, or emotional events
eidetic memory
retaining image of visual stimulus for several minutes after out of view
environmental memory
information easier to recall in same environmental context
state dependent memory
easier to recall when in same state/mood when learning occurred
afferent (sensory) neurons
relay messages from sense organs and receptors to brain and spinal cord
efferent (motor) neurons
signals from brain and spinal cord to glands and muscles for movement
interneurons
carry information; transmits between neurons in brain and neurons in spinal cord
cell body
contains the nucleus, carries out metabolic functions
dendrites
branch-like extension of a neuron, receive signals from other neurons
axon
tail-like extension of neuron; transmits signals to dendrites or cell body of other neurons; transmits signals to muscles, glands, other parts of body
glial cells
hold neurons together; remove waste and handle metabolic tasks; make myelin for cell transmission
synaptic cleft
gaps between axon terminals
synapse
the junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle
resting vs action potential
resting - neuron is at rest (not firing), carries negative electrical potential action - neuron is stimulated (firing), positive ions flow into axon
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
connects CNS to all other parts of the body
spinal cord
extension of the brain; transmits info from brain to PNS and from PNS to brain; relays messages to muscles, glands, body parts
brain stem
oldest part of the brain
medulla
-controls heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure etc. -screens sensory messages entering the brain
pons
-plays role in relaying motor messages between cerebellum and motor cortex -influence on sleep and dreaming
cerebellum
-coordinates skill movement, regulates muscle tone and posture -plays a role in motor learning and cognition
reticular formation
arousal system; activates cerebral system
hypothalamus
-controls unconscious functions (hunger, thirst, body temp) -helps control endocrine system -controls pituitary glands -handles emotions and emotional responses
thalamus
relay station between cerebral cortex and lower brain centers
limbic system
-group of structures involved in emotional expression -memory and motivation