2.3-2.4 Memory & Encoding

Memory

the persistence of learning over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved.

Encoding

the first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain.

Storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time.

Retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

Multi-Store Model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

the initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period; acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses.

Iconic Memory

type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images for a fraction of a second before fading.

Echoic Memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information for about 3–4 seconds, allowing processing of spoken language and sounds.

Short-Term Memory

temporarily holds a small amount of information for about 15–30 seconds; has limited capacity.

Working Memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information; combines short-term and long-term memories.

Central Executive

control center of working memory that manages attention, coordinates components, and integrates sensory and long-term information.

Phonological Loop

component of working memory that processes and stores verbal and auditory information; includes a phonological store and rehearsal system.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

component of working memory that handles visual and spatial information, enabling navigation, geometry, and object manipulation.

Long-Term Memory

stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely with virtually unlimited capacity; retains knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons resulting from simultaneous activation; a key mechanism for learning and memory.

Effortful Processing

type of memory encoding that requires active focus and attention to embed information into long-term memory.

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks without deliberate attention.

Levels of Processing Model

proposes that the depth of thinking affects memory retention; deeper processing leads to better recall.

Shallow Processing

basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics like sound or appearance; leads to fragile, short-term memories.

Structural Processing

type of shallow processing focused on the physical structure of information.

Phonemic Processing

type of shallow processing that focuses on the sound of information.

Deep Processing

involves focusing on meaning and connecting information to existing knowledge; creates durable, retrievable memories.

Chunking (Grouping)

memory strategy of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units to increase short-term memory capacity.

Categories (Grouping)

organizing information by grouping related items together to make recall easier and more logical.

Hierarchies (Grouping)

organizing information into ranked categories or levels to clarify relationships and enhance recall.

Mnemonics

techniques that aid memory by associating information with cues, images, or patterns (e.g., “My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos”).

Method of Loci

mnemonic technique linking information to physical locations, allowing retrieval by mentally walking through those locations.