AP Psych Unit 3.7 - 3.9 Vocab - Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Habituation

An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it—different from sensory adaptation

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Cognitive Learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, watching others, or through language; involves understanding, knowledge, or mental processes, rather than just changes in behavior—such learning challenges behaviorist ideas

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events—in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers that response.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behaviors without reference to mental processes

Neutral Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth)

Unconditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Acquisition

The initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

Higher Order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

(e.g. an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (thru salivation))

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in a classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus (e.g. ringing the bell several times without bringing food to the dog)

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

(e.g. Pavlov’s dog responds to a bell that sounds similar to the original tone)

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Respondent Behavior

Type of behavior that refers to the involuntary, reflexive actions automatically elicited by antecedent stimuli

Cognitive Map

an internal, mental representation of spatial relationships and environmental layouts that allows humans and animals to navigate, understand their surroundings, and plan routes (e.g. after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have a mental concept of the maze)

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Insight learning

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; learning that occurs after little or no systematic interaction with our environment

Intrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake (e.g. studying psychology out of curiosity)—having the freedom of choice can fuel this

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

(e.g. studying or doing homework to earn high grades)

Overjustification

The overuse of bribes/bribing someone to do something they already enjoy—-leads people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

(e.g. rewarding children with toys or candy for reading diminishes the time they spend reading)

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if follow by a punisher

Law of Effect

Psychologist Edward Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant Chamber

In operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking—also known as a Skinner box

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward approximations of the desired behavior—generally utilizes successive approximations method, which teases out behavior until you reach desired action/rewarding responses ever-closer to the desired behavior

Discriminative Stimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Positive Reinforcement

A behavioral technique that strengthens desired actions by immediately adding a motivating reward (e.g., praise, rewards, tokens) after the behavior occurs, making it more likely to recur

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli—any reinforcer that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (e.g. turning your alarm off to keep sleeping)

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (e.g. getting food when hungry)

Conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g. turning on a light delivers food)

Reinforcement schedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

Schedule reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs—learning occurs rapidly, most desirable for mastering a behavior (but extinction can also occur rapidly)

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (e.g. receiving a free coffee after buying 10 drinks)

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g. casino slot machines)

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (e.g. checking for mail more and more as delivery time approaches)

Variable Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows

Response Cost

Punishment that involves taking away a reinforcer or privilege a person has already earned (e.g. 2 kids fighting over a toy gets the toy taken away from both of them)

Time Out

Type of punishment that involves removing a favorite reinforcer for a period of time following an undesirable behavior

Can create fear and avoidance, suppresses a behavior and doesn’t unlearn it, it can interfere with motivation and learning

What are some limitations of punishment? (3)

Biofeedback

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back info regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension; these instruments mirror the results of a person’s own efforts, allowing someone to learn techniques for controlling a particular physiological response—-used to help people gain voluntary control over involuntary bodily functions (like heart rate, muscle tension, skin temperature) to manage stress, pain, anxiety, and various conditions

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant Behavior

Any voluntary, learned behavior that acts upon the environment to produce consequences, which in turn determine the likelihood of that behavior recurring

Token Economy

Behavioral modification system in which people earn tokens for displaying desired behaviors and can later redeem these tokens for rewards or privileges

Instinctive Drift

Tendency of animals to revert to natural, instinctive behaviors despite operant conditioning; occurs when learned behaviors are overshadowed by innate biological tendencies

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Problem-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Emotion-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

Learned Helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated or aversive events—perceiving a loss of control can lead to increased vulnerability to stress and illness

External Locus of Control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Internal Locus of Control

The perception that you control your own fate—this mindset generally leads to greater achievements

Self-control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term awards

Observational Learning

The process of acquiring new behaviors, skills, or information by watching others (models) and observing the consequences of their actions

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Bobo Doll Experiment

An experiment by Albert Bandura (1961) showed that children learn aggressive behavior through observation, mimicking adults who hit, kicked, and verbally abused an inflatable Bobo doll, even when just watching videos or cartoons. Key findings demonstrated observational learning (kids see, kids do) and social learning theory: children imitate aggression without direct rewards/punishments, especially from same-sex models, highlighting that behavior can be learned purely by watching others, not just through direct reinforcement.

Vicarious Reinforcement

learning by observing someone else (a model) get rewarded for a behavior, which makes you more likely to do that behavior yourself, as if you were directly rewarded

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Social Learning Theory

Developed by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn new behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions by observing and imitating others in social contexts. It emphasizes that learning is a cognitive process involving attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation, rather than just direct reinforcement

John B Watson

Psychologist who founded behaviorism, rejecting internal mental states like consciousness, feelings, and motives as unscientific because they can't be measured objectively. Argued psychology should focus on predicting and controlling behavior through stimulus-response relationships, much like a natural science, famously demonstrated in his controversial "Little Albert" experiment, which conditioned a baby to fear a white rat. 

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who founded the concept of classical conditioning in psychology, demonstrating that neutral stimuli can be paired with natural, reflexive stimuli to create learned, involuntary responses. His famous experiments showed that dogs could be trained to salivate to a bell, fundamentally impacting behaviorism and learning theory

John Garcia

Psychologist who showed that organisms are biologically predisposed to develop certain conditioned associations, such as taste aversions (associating taste and nausea), which indicates that not all associations are learned equally, quickly, or contiguously. Discovered this by giving rats flavored water before exposing them to radiation that made them sick.

Taste Aversion

A learned avoidance of a food or drink that was associated with illness or discomfort.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior

BF Skinner

A pioneering American psychologist and behaviorist famous for defining operant conditioning, the idea that behavior is shaped by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment) rather than internal mental states, viewing free will as an illusion; developed the operant chamber

Albert Bandura

Psychologist known for his Social Learning Theory, which posits people learn by observing others (modeling) and imitating behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions, not just through direct reinforcement; well-known for his Bobo doll experiment