Introduction into Anatomy

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

coronal plane

divides body into front and back

transverse plane

horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions

longitudinal section

cut through the long axis of an organ

-parallel to the long axis

transverse section

a cross section at right angle to long axis

oblique section

cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes

Proximal

Towards the trunk

Closer to the point of attachment

Distal

Away from the trunk or point of attachment

Lateral

away from the midline

Medial

toward the midline

Cephalic/Cranial

toward the head

Caudal

toward the tail

Ventral

Toward the belly

Dorsal

toward the back

Parietal

Toward the wall

-outer layer

Visceral

Away from the wall

-inner layer

Ipsilateral

On the same side of the body

-the right arm and right leg are ipsilateral

Contralateral

On the opposite side of the body

-the right arm and left leg are contralateral

Extension

Increase in angle between body surfaces

-extending down/backwards

Flexion

Decrease in the angle between body surfaces

-flexing up/forward

Hyperextension

Extension beyond what is normal

Smooth Muscle

lines the walls of blood vessels, hollow viscera, and digestive tract

-acts as involuntary, autonomic control

-capable of partial contraction

-capable of peristaltic waves (contraction starts at one end and travels to the other end)

Arteries

carries blood AWAY from the heart

composed of:

-arterioles

-muscular arteries

-elastic arteries (aorta)

Elastic Arteries

contain elastin in the walls

-helps maintain BP between contraction

Muscular Arteries

distributing arteries

-can vasoconstrict to regulate flow to the different parts of the body when needed (controlled by the SNS)

-muscular walls (smooth muscles) contract to propel blood

Arterioles

smallest artery type

-contains thick, smooth muscle walls and a narrow lumen

-regulates arterial pressure

Veins

returns low oxygen blood to the heart (only flows in one direction)

-contains thin walls

-do not pulsate or spurt

venules: smallest; drain capillary beds

Plexuses

collection of veins

venae comitantes

pair of veins around the artery

-acts as a artery pump to help return blood

Vasa Vasorum "Vessels of the Vessels"

some of the largest arteries and veins than contain arteries and veins of their own

Varicose Veins

stretched out veins

-when valves are closed they do not meet in the center causing blood to trickle back down

Flexion, if the shoulder is being raised the shoulder is being flexed forward

If a shoulder is being raised up in the supine position, what movement is being made?

Extension, if the limb is being pulled back the joint is being extended

If a leg is being pulled back via hip joint, what movement is being made?

extension is the acting of extending the wrist upwards while flexion is the act of flexing the wrist downward

In which way is the wrist joint being extended and flexed?

Flexion is the contraction of the fingers to form a fist while extension is the extension of fingers while stretched out

In which way does the extension and flexion of digits (fingers occur) at metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints

Abduction

away from the median (going out)

Adduction

towards the median (going in)

rotation

rotate along the long axis of the part toward (medial) or away (lateral) from the median plane

supination

lateral rotation of the forearm/hand so palm faces forward/outward

pronation

medial rotation of the forearm/hand so palm faces down

circumduction

combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction in a circular movement

inversion

sole of the foot towards the median plane (pinky toe)

eversion

sole of the foot away from the median plane (big toe)

Protection from abrasions, fluid loss, and microorganisms

Containment of tissues/organs, fluids (prevents dehydration)

Heat regulation, evaporation of sweat, dilation/constrict superficial vessels

Sensation from superficial nerves

Vitamin D production and storage

What are the functions of the skin?

Partial Skin Thickness

Composed of the epidermis (superficial cell layer) and dermis (layers of collagen and elastic fibers- connective tissue layer- that provides toughness to the skin

contains:

-hair follicles

-arrector pili muscles (goose bumps)

-sebaceous glands (secrete oil)

-sweat glands (evaporation of sweat to help cool body)

-generates wrinkles depending on the toughness of skin

Superficial Fascia

subcutaneous tissue located between the skin and the deep fascia

- lose fatty connective tissue (stores fat)

-retains heat (thermal regulation), provides padding between skin and bony prominences

-contains sweat glands, blood vessels, lymphatic and cutaneous nerves

-skin ligaments (retinaculum cutis): fibrous bands through subcutaneous to the dermis (determines mobility of the skin)

Deep Fascia

dense organized connective tissue

-covers the muscles

-forms fascial compartments (groups of muscles with similar function and same nerve supply)

helps make the muscle action more efficient by limiting the outward expansion with contraction*

Prime movers

main muscle responsible for producing specific movements of the body

-synergists: assist in producing that same movement

-antagonist: opposes the movement of another muscle

-fixators: steadies proximal part of the limb through isometric contraction while movement occurs distally

True, the fixator muscle does not produce movement by itself, rather it stabilizes the origin of the primer mover so that it can act efficiently

example: muscles attaching the shoulder gridle to the truck contract to fix shoulder gridle, allowing deltoid muscle to move the shoulder joint

True or false: the fixator muscle does not move itself

cardiac muscle

involuntary muscle, under autonomic control

-myocardium: wall of the heart

Capillaries

endothelial tubes that connect arterioles to venules (nutrient exchange between blood and tissues)

-AV shut (direct connection between arterioles and venules) to conserve heat/energy

Arteries-Arterioles-Capillaries-Venules-Veins

What is the typical exchange of blood throughout the body?

Lymph

tissue fluid ( plasma proteins and material from tissue cells) that enters lymph capillaries

-gets returned back to vascular system

Lymph nodes

small mass of lymphatic tissue along the path of the lymphatic vessels that filter lymph on its way to the venous system

-each node filters out 90% of bad stuff

Drainage and filtration of tissue fluid

Defense mechanisms of the body

Absorption and drainage of fat

What are the functions of the lymphatic system?

right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct (located on the left) drain lymph back into the venous system at the junction of the internal jugular vein and the subclavian vein

How do lymphatic ducts function?

Central Nervous System

composed of the brain and spinal cord and is surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and meninges

integrates and coordinates incoming/outgoing signals

works to perform higher mental functions

-composed of dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

-CSF is located between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater

dura mater

epidural space: superficial to the dura mater

subdural space: between the dura and the arachnoid mater

Peripheral Nervous System

cranial and spinal nerves (nerve fibers and cell bodies outside the CNS, conduct impulses to or away from the CNS)

Spinal Nerve

contains a ventral root (motor or efferent) and a dorsal root (sensory or afferent)

divides into dorsal ramus (innervates deep/intrinsic muscles of back, facet joints and skin) and ventral ramus (innervates all limbs and anterolateral trunk

Spongy bones (cancellous, trabecular)

in medullary cavity, contains air spaces

-has both red and yellow bone marrow (makes blood cells/platelets)

Compact (dense) bones

hard, no spaces, surrounds the spongy bone and provides the strength of the bone

-located in all bones

Osteoblasts (organic)

the breakdown of calcium and phosphate (inorganic) in bones

Osteoclasts (organic)

the formation of calcium and phosphate (inorganic) in bones

Osteoporosis

decrease of organic and inorganic components therefore causing a decrease in the quantity of the bone

Osteomalacia

bones become soft due to Vitamin D deficiency (Vitamin D helps you form calcium)

-bone is breaking down faster than it can form

Rickets, the child form of osteomalacia

What is the condition known as a decrease in calcium in kids?

Skull, Spine, Sternum, and Ribs (midline)

What composes the axial skeleton?

Pelvic gridle and bones of the lower extremities

Shoulder gridle and bones of the upper extremities

What composes the appendicular skeleton?

long bones

tubular in shape

ex: humorous and femur

short bones

cuboidal in shape

ex: bones in ankle and wrist

flat bones

bone that usually serves as a protective function in the body

ex: ribs, sternum

irregular bones

bones that come in various shapes depending on the person

ex: cranium, vertebrae

sesamoid bones

bones that develop in some tendons where they cross ends of bones

ex: patella

-protects tendons from excessive wear and can change the angle of tendons as they pass their attachment

Mesenchyme

embryonic connective tissue/membrane that is turned into bone via intramembranous ossification or intracartilaginous ossification (endochondral bone formation)

intramembranous ossification

process by which bone forms directly from mesenchymal tissue

-occurs with the skull, mandible, and clavices

intracartilaginous ossification

the process of replacing mesenchymal tissue with cartilage which then turns to bone

contains:

-primary ossification centers: center of future shaft known as diaphysis; prenatal and by birth it reaches the end

-secondary ossification centers (epiphyses): form after birth via ossification

-metaphysis: part of the diaphysis closest to the epiphysis (separates the diaphysis from the epiphysis so they don't fuse during growth of bones)

For females, cartilage at plates is totally replaced by bones usually by 18

For males, it usually takes longer depending on their height

When do bones stop growing for both men and women?

Bones contain periosteal arteries which supply rich nerve supply to the periosteum of the bone

As well, bones contain metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries and veins

What is the vascular supply in bones?

periosteal nerves

serves as the pain sensor

-the periosteum (the outer covering of bones) is very sensitive

Fractures hurt due to the sensitivity of the periosteum which contains the periosteal nerve that stimulates pain in the bones

Why do fractures hurt?

Protection (ex: ribs protect the lungs

Support (ex: the skull supports the brain)

Movement (ex: bones act as a lever for movement)

Blood Cells (ex: bone marrow makes blood)

Storage (ex: the bones store calcium and phosphate)

What are the 5 main functions of bones?

fibrous joints (synarthrosis)

bones are connected by strands of collagen fibers

-suture: contains short fibers with layer of fibrous tissue (found in the skull)

-syndesmosis contains one sheet of fibrous tissue (connective tissue between the radius and the ulna)

-gomphosis: serves as a socket in the mouth that allow the tooth to be anchored by a ligament into the jaw

cartilaginous joints

bones held together by hyaline or fibrocartilage

Synchondrosis (hyaline) found in epiphyseal plates, 1st sternocostal joints

Symphysis (fibrocartilage) found in intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis, and manubrium to sternum

synovial joints

contains a cavity with synovial fluid, hyaline cartilage (no nerves or blood), and a capsule lined by synovial membrane

-usually contains intrinsic (thickenings of the joint capsule) and extrinsic (outside of the joint capsule) ligaments

-may contain discs as well (ex: meniscus in the knee)

Pivot joints: a round bone that fits into bony ligamentous socket allowing for rotation (ex: neck)

Ball and Socket joints: a rounded head fits into a concavity permitting movement of several axes, most mobile form (ex: hip)

Plane joints: permit gliding or sliding movements (ex: clavicle)

Hinge joints: permit flexion and extension only (ex: elbow joint)

Saddle joint: each surface is convex in one direction (ex: wrist to thumb attachment)

Condyloid joint: one surface is concave while the other is convex (ex: finger bones against on another)

What are the different types of Synovial Joints?

Hilton's Law

nerves supplying a joint also supply the muscles moving the joint and the skin covering their distal attachments

-pain and proprioception from articular nerves that supply the joint

Articular arteries get the blood supply from surrounding joints and brings it into the joint

Anastomoses branch from different blood vessels to connect with each other and form a network

Veins accompany the arteries to pump unoxygenated blood back to the heart

How is blood supplied to the joint both in capsule and synovial membranes?

longitudianal muscles

fibers parallel to the force that is generated

ex: hamstring

unipennate, bipennate, multipennate muscles

muscles arranged from one angle to allow more fibers to be packed in to save space and generate more force

-multi: arranged at several angles relative to force direction

flat muscles

Parallel fibers often having aponeurosis (flat tendons)

ex: external oblique

fusiform muscles

spindle-shaped muscle with a central belly that tapers to tendons on each end

allows them to focus their power onto small, bony targets

Ex. brachialis, biceps brachii

quadrate muscles

muscle has four equal sides

ex: pronator quadratus, quadratus lumborum

circular muscles (sphincters)

form rings around body openings

-constricts the opening when the muscle contracts

origin/insertion vs. proximal/distal attachments (attachment of muscles)

when a muscle contracts, one of its attachments is usually fixed while the other is moving (the origin is not always the one that is fixed)

-occurs via tendon, aponeurosis, fascia, skin, or mucous membrane