AP Comparative Politics: Key Concepts in Political Systems and Regimes

Correlation

a demonstrated relationship between two variables

Positive correlation

when A is higher, B tends to be higher as well

Negative correlation

when A is higher, B tends to be lower

Causation

scientific demonstration that changes in one variable cause changes in another variable

GDP per capita

a measure of standard of living

Economic Growth Rate

the percentage change in GDP

GDP

the total market value of all goods and services produced in an economy in a year

Gini index

shows income inequality within a country; a Gini of 100% indicates perfect inequality, while a Gini of 0% indicates perfect equality

Human Development Index (HDI)

a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development including statistics about life expectancy, amount of schooling, and income (GNI)

Freedom House

a non-governmental organization that ranks countries based on scores of 0-4 for political rights and civil liberties, with scores ranging from 0 (Least Free) to 100 (Most Free)

Fragile States Index

assesses and ranks countries based on their potential to weaken due to conflicts and domestic turmoil, using 12 indicators grouped as cohesion indicators, economic indicators, political indicators, and social/cross-cutting indicators

Qualitative method

a type of study that uses in-depth investigation of a limited number of cases

Quantitative method

a type of study that uses statistical data from many cases

Game theory

an approach that emphasizes how actors or organizations behave in their goal to influence others, built upon assumptions of rational choice

Rational choice

an approach that assumes that individuals weigh the costs and benefits and make choices to maximize their benefits

Selection bias

a distortion of statistical analysis results due to the method of collecting samples

Endogeneity

a situation in which an explanatory variable is correlated with the error term

Multicausality

the existence of multiple causes for a single effect

Data-gathering limitations

challenges faced in collecting accurate and comprehensive data

Economic Data Resources

a number of data collection resources used to investigate relationships among course countries

Failed/Fragile States Index

an index that assesses the stability and resilience of countries in the face of conflict and turmoil

Fragile States

Countries scoring higher on the 120 point scale are recognized as more fragile states susceptible to instability than countries that score lower in the index.

State

The institutions that maintain a monopoly on violence over a population within a defined territory - Max Weber.

Sovereignty

The ability to carry out actions or policies within a territory independently from external actors or internal riots.

Institutions

Actors which carry out the state's responsibilities (i.e., executive branch, bureaucracy, military, courts, etc.).

Nation

People group that is bound together through shared political aspirations (i.e., self government).

Regime

Fundamental rules and norms of politics that can change gradually through reform or through rapid trauma or revolution.

Government

The leadership presently entrusted with running the state, which can change through elections or transitions of power.

Rule of Law

The principle that a state should be governed by the rule of law and not arbitrary decisions made by individual government officials.

Transparency

The degree of openness in governmental decision making for citizens to discover how policies are made and implemented.

Freedom of Information Act

A law passed in the United Kingdom in 2000 to promote transparency in governmental decision making.

Investigative Journalism

The use of media by civil society groups to uncover governmental corruption.

Liberal Democracy

A system of governance emphasizing rights, where political power resides with the people and includes formal and informal participation.

Characteristics of Democracy

1. The government is chosen and/or replaced through free and fair elections. 2. Citizens actively participate in politics and civic life. 3. Human rights of all citizens are protected. 4. Rule of law equally applies laws and procedures to all citizens.

Free and Fair Election

An election characterized by free and fair competition for political power.

Political Power

Resides with the people, who hold rulers accountable for their actions in the public realm.

Civil Liberties

The rights and freedoms that protect individuals from government overreach.

Authoritarianism

A political system characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms.

Democracy

A system of governance in which rulers are held accountable for their actions in the public realm by citizens.

Political Aspirations

Shared goals among a people group that drive their desire for self-government.

Civil Rights

The rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality.

Media Freedom

The ability of media outlets to operate without censorship or restraint from the government.

Free and Fair Elections

Elections where voters can see their preferred candidate has a chance to be on the ballot, candidates have adequate time to get their message to voters, and all votes are counted equally.

Social Democratic Regimes

Political systems that emphasize collective welfare over individual rights, especially property rights, with examples including Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.

Liberal Democratic Regimes

Political systems that emphasize individual opportunities and property rights over collective well-being, with the United Kingdom as an example.

Authoritarian Regime

A regime in which a small group of individuals exercises power over the state with no constitutional responsibility to the public.

Totalitarian Regime

A centralized regime that possesses a strong ideology that seeks to transform and absorb fundamental aspects of the state, society, and economy.

Democratization

The process of becoming more democratic, moving towards a fully liberal democracy.

Characteristics of Democratization

Includes a more competitive, fair, transparent political system, increased opportunities for citizen participation, expanding towards universal suffrage, transparency in government, protected civil rights and liberties, equal treatment of citizens, and establishment of 'Rule of Law.'

Democratic Consolidation

A state where democracy is the 'only game in town' for achieving desired political outcomes.

Political Corruption

An inhibitor of democratization that involves the misuse of power for personal gain.

Reducing Independence of Non-Executive Institutions

A method that inhibits democratization by undermining the judiciary and legislature.

Changing Electoral Rules

A tactic used to reduce competition or citizen participation in elections.

Societal Conflict

Conflicts between cleavages, such as elites vs. non-elites or racial/ethnic conflicts, that can inhibit democratization.

Co-Optation

A method where the public is brought into a beneficial relationship with the state or government.

Corporatism

A system where labor, businesses, and other interest groups bargain with the state over economic policy, with only state-sanctioned groups participating in authoritarian regimes.

Clientelism

A practice where the state provides specific benefits to a person or group to elicit their support.

Personality Cult

The promotion of the image of a leader as someone who embodies the spirit of the nation, with examples including Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Ayatollah Khomeini, and Vladimir Putin.

Personal and Monarchical Rule

Rule by a single leader with no clear regime or rules to constrain the ruler.

Patrimonialism

A system where supporters benefit from their alliance with the ruler, often involving corruption and clientelism.

Mobutu Sese Seko

The leader of Zaire (now DRC) from 1965 to 1997, known for using the nation's diamond and copper wealth to enrich his followers.

Military Rule

Rule by one or more military officials, brought to power through a coup d'etat.

Bureaucratic authoritarianism

Alliances with business and state elites.

One-Party Rule

Rule by one political party, other groups banned or excluded from power systematically.

Large party membership

Mobilizes and maintains control in return for benefits.

Theocracy

Rule by God, with religious texts and leaders as the foundation of the regime and politics.

Religious leadership

Fused with political leadership into one sovereign authority.

Illiberal Regimes

Rule by elected leadership, though procedures are of questionable democratic legitimacy.

Vote rigging

Manipulation of electoral processes to ensure desired outcomes.

Economic sources of nondemocratic rule

Wealthier society = greater desire to assert individual political rights.

Societal sources of nondemocratic rule

Political culture and religion can influence tendencies towards nondemocracy.

Sustaining Legitimacy

Methods: policy effectiveness, tradition, charismatic leadership.

Challenges to Legitimacy

Issues like corruption, reduced electoral competition, and economic problems.

China's political system

One party (the Chinese Communist Party) has been in power since the Revolution in 1949.

Iran's political system

A theocracy requiring religious credentials for men to run for the Assembly of Experts.

Mexico's political transition

Once had authoritarian systems of rule, now has constitutions and regular elections.

Putin's Russia

Centralizes power in the hands of the executive and manages election results to his advantage.

Economic inequality

A challenge to legitimacy in Nigeria.

Drug-related violence

A challenge to legitimacy in Mexico.

Human rights concerns

A challenge to legitimacy in China.

Election integrity questions

A challenge to legitimacy in Russia.

Brexit divisions

A challenge to legitimacy in the UK.

Scottish independence movement

A challenge to legitimacy in the UK.

Regime change

Altering the fundamental system of politics and power, typically shifting to become either more democratic or more authoritarian.

Revolution

Large portions of the population support an overthrow of the existing regime and new leadership arises to replace it.

Coup d'etat

The existing government loses support, and the military intervenes to forcibly overthrow the government and take political power itself.

Election

New political leadership is brought into power by electoral victory, and uses the victory as a mandate to enact rapid regime change.

Reform

Incremental changes are made to the political system over time, transitioning gradually to a more democratic or more authoritarian system.

Unitary

One national government, local/regional units have little or no say in policy, or are only given authority by the central government.

Federal

Local units are permanent, constitutionally established, and divide or share power with the central national government, operating independently on many matters.

Confederal

Sovereignty is fully held by local levels of government, united by a weaker central government.

Centralization

The process of consolidating power within a central authority.

Decentralization

The distribution of power away from a central authority.

Legitimacy

The people's belief/perception that the government has the 'right to rule.'

Sources of legitimacy

Election and faith in the democratic system or constitution, nationalism, tradition, governmental effectiveness, religious heritage, dominant party endorsement.

Losing legitimacy

Visible corruption, perceived lack of fairness in the electoral process, failing economy, inability to control violence and civil strife.

Good Friday Agreement

An agreement aimed at ending the conflict in Northern Ireland and devolving some powers to locally elected parliaments.

Separatist movement in Chechnya

A movement that led to war in 2000 and significant conflict in Russia.

Siege of Beslan

A 2004 incident where Chechen terrorists held children hostage at a school, leading to a massacre during the Russian military response.

Super-Districts

Seven federal districts in Russia with heads appointed by the president to oversee local authorities.