Developmental Psychology - AP Psychology

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Focus of Developmental Psychology

Nature vs Nurture, Continuity and Stages, and Stability and Change

Longitudinal Study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time to study their changes

Cross-Sectional Study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Conception

A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell.

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Gestation

growth process from conception to birth; consists of the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stage

Germinal Stage

first 2-weeks; zygote (fertilized egg)

Embryonic Stage

2-8 weeks; attach to uterine wall and becomes placenta

Fetal Stage

9 weeks-birth; embryo becomes fetus and begins resembling human-like form

Teratogens

(literally, "monster maker") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm (alcohol, drugs, etc)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Childhood

span from birth to infancy up until the teenage years in which an individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Nature vs. Nurture Opinions About Maturation

Sets basic course of development while environment effects adjust it OR occurs regardless of environment around us but the environment can change the process

Rooting Reflex

When touched on the cheek, newborns will turn their head towards the touch

Sucking Reflex

An infant reflex in which the infant starts sucking when his or her lips are stroked or something is put into their mouth.

Grasping Reflex

When touched on the palm of the hand or foot, a baby will wrap his fingers tightly around the stimulus

Moro Reflex

Reflex in which a newborn stretches out the arms/legs, cry, and then retract itself in response to loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment

Babinski Reflex

in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out

Motor Development in Infants

Infants begin to roll over, then sit unsupported, then crawl, and then finally walk independently

Contact Comfort (Harry Harlow)

the instinctual need to touch and be touched; proven by Harlow's Rhesus Monkeys experiment where monkeys chose a soft comfy monkey over a rough one

Stranger Anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Critical Period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)

instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother; studied by Lorenz in his experiment with ducks

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Temperament

infants personality characteristics which determine how they react to situations and express emotions

Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)

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emotional bond between infant and primary caregiver (to satisfy basic biological needs)

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What are the characteristics of Bowlby's Attachment Theory?

proximity maintenance, safe haven, secure base, and separation distress

Strange Situation Experiment (Mary Ainsworth)

found "types of attachment" based on emotional attachment between child and primary caregiver

Secure Attachment

caregiver is affectionate/reliable; leads to child being trusting, better with stress/anxiety, and enjoying relationships

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

caregiver is unresponsive/absent; leads to child having poor relationships and limited emotional range

Insecure Resistant-Ambivalent Attachment

caregiver is inconsistent in response to child's needs; leads to poor relationships, passivity/inactivity (helplessness), and emotional swings

Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind)

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved; based on parental responsiveness/demandingness

Authoritarian Parenting

parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children; anxious/poor reaction to frustration/do well in school/not likely to be antisocial

Authoritative Parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making; self-confident/well-developed emotion regulation/social/happy

Permissive Parenting

parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior; poor emotion regulation/rebellious/antisocial behaviors/low persistence to challenges

Self-Concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" aka awareness of self

Unconditional Positive Regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Conditional Positive Regard

positive regard that is given only when the person is doing what the providers of positive regard wish

Basic Trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting new info based on current schema

Accomodation

process of adjusting a schema and modifying it

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

believed children will not learn unless cognitively ready to do so and that cognitive development is biologically driven amidst experiences with the environment; developed the Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object Permanence (Piaget)

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (sensorimotor stage)

Preoperational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Centration (Piaget)

centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others (preoperational stage)

Irreversibility (Piaget)

the inability to envision reversing an action (preoperational stage)

Egocentrism (Piaget)

inability to take another person's point of view (preoperational stage)

Animism

belief that all things are living (preoperational stage)

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Conservation (Piaget)

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (concrete operational stage)

Mental Operations (Piaget)

ability to draw conclusions from a number of facts (concrete operational stage)

Inductive Logic (Piaget)

ability to draw conclusions from a number of facts (concrete operational stage)

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Abstract Logic (Piaget)

"outside the box"; can consider and evaluate imagined realities and symbols (formal operational stage)

Deductive Logic (Piaget)

"if this, then that"; can derive facts from generalizations (formal operational stage)

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

believed that social interactions guide cognitive development and depends on interaction with people and the tools culture provides

Zone of Proximal Development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction

Theory of Mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

Gender Role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

Gender Identity

our sense of being male or female

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Gender Typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

Cognitive psychologist who studied how children develop morals and developed a stage theory of moral development

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Moral development takes place in stages (follows a sequence) and awareness of other people increases at each stage; preconventional, conventional, and postconventional

Preconventional Morality

first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior (earn punishment or gain reward)

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment (Kohlberg)

Obey the rules to avoid punishment; rules are fixed/absolute

Stage 2: Personal Reward and Self-Interest (Kohlberg)

Conforms to receive rewards; account for individual POV; reciprocity is possible only if it serves one's own interests

Conventional Morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior (social rules/laws)

Stage 3: Good-Boy/Good-Girl (Kohlberg)

Decisions done to gain approval or avoid disapproval; live up to social expectations; conformity to manage interpersonal relationships

Stage 4: Law and Order

conform to authority to be a good citizen; maintain social order by following the rules

Post-Conventional Morality

Kohlberg's highest stage of morality- occurs late in life and is a personal morality, developed by the adult and which supersedes society's rules, laws, and restrictions

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights (Kohlberg)

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards (concern for individual rights)

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

guided by conscience and reflections; abstract reasoning; follow internalized principles of justice even f they conflict with rules and laws

Carol Giligan (1936-Present)

criticized Kohlberg's theory; argued that Kohlberg missed the fact that males and females tend to view moral dilemmas differently; females are more independent w/ more intimate relationships while men are more competitive and form larger groups

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Social Identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Believes identity is developed in stages and considers impact of external factors (parents/society); created the Seven Erikson's Stages of Social Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Erikson)

Birth to Age 1 \n Totally dependent on others for their needs \n -Succeed: warm, responsive, consistent caregiving \n -Fail: unresponsive, harsh, neglectful, abusive

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame (Erikson)

1-3 years \n Can I do things myself? \n -Succeed: patience, encouragement \n -Fail: belittling, discouraging

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Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Erikson)

3-5 years \n Am I good or bad? \n -Succeed: allow the child to try, encourage, guide \n -Fail: not allowing child to try, scolding

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Erikson)

6-11 years \n Am I competent or worthless? \n -Succeed: self-confidence in meeting demands of school/society \n -Fail: feelings of inferiority and inadequacy (not try new tasks)

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Erikson)

12-18 years \n Who am I? \n -Succeed: sense of identity to face adulthood w/ confidence \n -Fail: Identity crisis

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Erikson)

18-35 years \n Will I find an intimate relationship or be alone? \n -Succeed: intimacy forms with close relationships \n -Fail: social isolation

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson)

35-55 years \n What difference am I making in the world \n -Succeed: active involvement in teaching next generation \n -Fail: not seeking outlets for involvement and being self-centered

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

55+ years \n Have I lived a full life? \n -Succeed: look back with satisfaction \n -Fail: look back with anger and frustration

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Imaginary Audience Phenomenon

A false belief others are always paying attention to the adolescent, especially his flaws.

Nobody Understands Me Phenomenon

The belief that no one else has experienced life exactly as the adolescent has, and therefore cannot understand the adolescent.