Psychology of Women: Feminism, Gender Identity, and Socialization

bell hooks' definition of feminism

movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression.

1st Wave of feminism

suffrage, property rights.

2nd Wave of feminism

workplace equality, reproductive rights, sexuality, legal inequality.

3rd Wave of feminism

intersectionality, diversity of experiences.

4th Wave of feminism

social media activism, #MeToo, inclusivity.

Core tenets of feminist psychology

challenge androcentrism, emphasize women's lived experiences, intersectionality, empowerment, and social change.

Social identity

aspects of the self tied to group membership.

ADDRESSING model

Age, Developmental disabilities, Disabilities (acquired), Religion, Ethnicity, Socioeconomic status, Sexual orientation, Indigenous heritage, National origin, Gender.

Privilege

unearned advantages; mechanism: conferred dominance.

Sexism

prejudice/discrimination based on sex/gender.

Stereotypes

oversimplified beliefs (e.g., women as "nurturing," men as "aggressive").

Racialized sexist stereotypes

e.g., "angry Black woman," "submissive Asian woman."

Ambivalent sexism

Hostile: overtly negative, e.g., "women are incompetent." Benevolent: seemingly positive but patronizing, e.g., "women should be protected."

Negative outcomes of sexism

limits opportunities, internalized oppression, worsens mental health.

Gender essentialism

belief that men/women have fixed, inherent traits.

Sex/gender binary

division into two exclusive categories; examples: restrooms, sports teams.

Hyde's similarities hypothesis

men/women are more similar than different; most differences are small.

Effect sizes

measure strength of differences; prevents overstating significance.

Meta-analysis

statistical method combining multiple studies.

Findings on cognition

few differences; women = slightly better verbal skills; men = slightly better spatial skills.

Findings on emotions

stereotypes exaggerate differences; men show aggression more physically, women more relationally.

Gender identity, expression, and assignment

internal sense vs. external expression vs. label at birth.

Gender dysphoria

distress due to mismatch between identity and assignment.

Sexual development diversity

variations in chromosomes/hormones.

Conditions related to sexual development

Turner syndrome (XO), Klinefelter syndrome (XXY). Androgen insensitivity, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, 5-alpha reductase deficiency.

Sex determination vs. differentiation

chromosomes/hormones guide gonads; ducts (Wolffian = male, Müllerian = female).

Role of androgens

masculinization of genitalia and brain pathways.

Stigma & intersex

medicalization, secrecy, early surgeries; current recommendation = delay non-consensual surgeries.

Dr. John Money

promoted early surgical interventions, later criticized for harm.

Behavioral/social learning

reinforcement, punishment, modeling shape gender roles.

Self-socialization

children actively adopt gendered behaviors.

Schemas

cognitive structures that influence gender expectations.

Gender labeling

usually develops ~2-3 years old.

Social construction

gender is shaped by culture, institutions, and norms. Example: differences in childcare expectations by culture.

Media representation

Books: boys more represented; girls in passive roles. TV/Movies: overrepresentation of white experiences; sexualization of girls.

Disney princesses

early → passive/romantic; modern → more agency but still gendered.

Family influence

differential treatment, modeling, reinforcement.

Family composition

influences children's roles and expectations.

Gender segregation

children often play in same-gender groups, reinforcing differences.