Human Growth and Development

Information from the Purple Book for the CPCE and NCE.

Freudian stages

oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital; emphasize sexuality

Erik Erikson’s eight stages

focus on social relationships; psychosocial

Psychometric

mental testing or measurement

Psychodiagnostic

pertains to the study of personality through interpretation of behavior or nonverbal cues; in counseling, aforementioned factors or tests to label the client in a diagnostic category

Psychopharmacology

studies the effects that medications or drugs have on psychological functions

Psychodynamic theory

focuses on unconscious processes rather than cognitive factors when counseling clients

Id

the seat of sex and aggression; not rational or logical, and it is void of time orientation. It is chaotic and only concerned with the body, not the outside world.

Ego

logical, rational, and utilizes the power of reasoning and control to keep impulses in check

Ego psychologists

accent the ego and the power of control

e.g., Erik Erikson

Superego

the moralistic and idealistic portion of the personality

Behaviorists

do not believe in concepts like the id, the ego, and the superego; generally feel that if it can’t be measured then it doesn’t exist

Radical behaviorists

do not believe in mental constructs such as “the mind” nor do they believe in consciousness

Erik Erikson

a psychoanalyst and a disciple of Freud; created a theory with eight stages in which each stages represents a psychosocial crisis or a turning point; felt that in attempt to find out who they really are, adolescents will experiment with various roles

A. A. Brill

analytic career theory

Milton H. Erickson

associated with brief psychotherapy and innovative techniques in hypnosis

Jean Piaget

the leading name in cognitive development in children; his four-stage cognitive development theory is based on epigenesis (the notion that successfully completing a previous stage is necessary for the stages that transpire next); often did observational experiments on his own children

Jay Haley

known for their work in strategic and problem-solving therapy, often utilizing the technique of paradox. Claims to have acquired a wealth of information by studying the work of Milton H. Erickson

Arnold Lazarus

considered a pioneer in the behavior therapy movement, especially in regard to the use of systematic desensitization, a technique which helps clients cope with phobias; name is associated with multimodal theraoy

Robert Perry

known for their ideas related to adult cognitive development; espeically regarding college students

Dualistic thinking

dualism, black and white thinking with virtually no ambiguity

Relativistic thinking

the ability to perceive that not everything is right or wrong but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation

Robert Kegan

well-known figure in the area of adult cognitive development; model stresses interpersonal development as a “constructive model of development, meaning that individuals construct reality throughout the life span”

Idiographic approaches

examine individuals in depths (e.g., Piaget and Freud)

Nomothetic approaches

large numbers of people are studied to create general principles that apply to the population (e.g., behaviorism or the DSM)

Piaget’s Four Stages

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations

Conservation

the notion that a substance’s weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes shape; mastered during the concrete operations stage

Concrete operations stage (ages 7-11 years)

mastery of conservation, the ability to count mentally, the concept of reversibility

mass, weight, and then volume are most easily understood

Symbolic schema

a cognitive structure that grows with life experience; a schema is a system which permits the child to test out things in the physical world

Formal operations

12 years and older; includes abstract thought, using deduction, and thinking in terms of multiple hypotheses

abstract concepts of time (e.g., what was life like 500 years ago) or distance (e.g., how far is 600 miles) can only be comprehended via abstract thinking

Preoperations

2-7 years

Sensorimotor intelligence

birth to 2 years

Lev Vygotsky

disagreed with Piaget’s notion that developmental stages take place naturally; insisted the stages unfold due to educational intervention

pioneered the zone of proximal development

Lawrence Kohlberg

the leading theorist in moral development; used stories to determine the level or moral development in children

Epigenetic

principle states that each stage emerges from the one before it, and this process follows a given order and is systematic

Reversibility

mastered in the concrete operational stage, defined as one’s ability to understand that one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its initial shape

Egocentrism

conveys the fact that the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else

Kohlberg’s theory

three levels of moral development, which each level can be broken down further into two stages:

the preconventional, conventional, and postconventional

The Heinz dilemma

one method used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess the level and stage of moral development in an individual

C. G. Jung

the father of analytic psychology

The Menninger Psychiatric Clinic

a traditional psychoanalytic foothold as well as the site of landmark in the area of biofeedback

Biofeedback

a technique used to help individuals learn to control bodily processes more effectively using electronic devices

Positive psychology

coined by Abraham Maslow and popularized by learned helplessness syndrome pioneer Martin Seligman; refers to the study of human strengths such as joy, wisdom, altruism, the ability to love, happiness, and wisdom

Preconventional level

the child responds to consequences, in this stage reward and punishment (i.e., selfish motives) greatly influence the behavior

Stage 1: punishment/obedience orientation

Stage 2: naive hedonism (AKA instrumental or egotistic) orientation

Conventional level

the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation; wishes to conform to the roles in society so that authority and social order can prevail; “morality of conventional rules and conformity”

Stage 3: good boy/good girl orientation

Stage 4: authority, law, and order orientation

Post conventional level

most people never reach this level, individuals are concerned with universal ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights; creates their own moral principles rather than those set by society or family; “morality of self-accepted principles level”

e.g., Ghandi, Socrates, and MLK Jr. have reached this level

Stage 5: democratically accepted law or “social contract”

Stage 6: principles of self-conscience and universal ethics

Harry Stack Sullivan

postulated the stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, and late adolescence

focuses on social influences

The psychiatry of interpersonal relations

biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society

Integrity versus despair

Erikson’s final stage of development, an individual tends toward integrity in the sense that his or her life has been worthwhile, around age 60

The zone of proximal development

describes the difference between a child’s performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor and was pioneered by Vygotsky

Maturation hypothesis/theory

suggests that behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment

suggests that the individual’s neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold

a counselor who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives; the client’s childhood and past are seen as important therapeutic topics

Marsha M. Linehan

created DBT with a focus on mindfulness and is useful for clients harboring feelings of self-harm and suicide and substance abuse issues

Arnold Gesell

a pioneer in terms of using a one-way mirror for observing children; a maturationist who felt that development is primarily determined via genetics/heredity

John Bowlby

saw bonding and attachment as having survival value (i.e., adaptive significance); insisted that in order to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult before the age of 3, and if the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as object loss

Generativity versus stagnation

midlife crisis occurs here in Erikson’s theory

Harry Harlow

believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned; experimented with isolated monkeys to evaluate the role of attachment

Maccoby and Jacklin

reviewed the literature and found very few differences that could be attributed to genetics and biological factors; found that men were better at performing mathematical calculations than females

Conformity seems to peak

in the early teens

Harlow’s monkey experiment

found infant monkeys preferred the terry-cloth mothers to wire mothers even though the wire mothers were equipped to dispense milk; concluded that contact comfort is important in the development of the infant’s attachment to his or her other

Manifest

content describes the dream material as it is presented to the dreamer

Latent

content (which is seen as far more important by the Freudians) refers to the hidden meaning of the dream

The fear of death

is greatest during middle age

Development

is a continuous process which begins at conception; developmental psychologists are fond of looking at prenatal influences that affect the fetus before birth

Cephalocaudal

refers to bodily proportions between the head and the tail

the head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs

Heredity

the transmission of traits from parents to their offspring, assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, assumes that heredity characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes, and assumes that genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code

Heritability

the portion of a trait that can be explained via genetic factors

Oedipus complex

a boy’s secret wish to marry his mother, paired with rage toward his father - is said to occur between ages 3 and 5; occurs during the phallic stage

Electra complex

the female child fantasizes about sexual relations with the parent of the opposite gender and create tension since this is generally not possible

Freud’s psychosexual stages

oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

Eleanor Gibson

researched depth perception in children using the visual cliff; found that by 6 months old most infants will not attempt to cross the drop-off, thus indicating that depth perception in humans is inherent

by 8 months, children begin to show stranger anxiety

Stranger anxiety

a child can discriminate a familiar person from a person who is unknown

Organismic viewpoint

slanted toward qualitative rather than quantitative factors that can be measured empirically; organismic psychologists do not believe in mind-body distinction

Empiricists

believe developmental changes can be measured; often said to be the forerunner of behaviorism

view is behavioristic; value statistical studies and emphasize the role of the environment

Sensorimotor intelligence

using reflexes in Piaget’s theory

Practical intelligence

captures the gist of the sensorimotor stage

Object permanence

understanding that objects have an existence even when you are not interacting with them; established in the sensorimotor stage

this requires representational thought

Fixation

implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next; therefore when life becomes traumatic, emotional development can come to a screeching halt, although physical and cognitive processes may continue at a normal pace

Instincts

species-specific innate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or learned; they are not behavioral responses

Ethology

field research utilizing animals

Comparative psychology

refers to lab research using animals and attempts to generalize findings to humans

Konrad Lorenz

known for his work on process of imprinting

Critical periods

certain behaviors must be learned at an early time in the animal’s development or the behaviors will never be learned at all

Deductive thinking processes

allow an individual to apply general reasoning to specific situations

Robert J. Havinghurst

proposed developmental tasks for:

infancy and early childhood (e.g., learning to walk or eat solid foods)

middle childhood ages 6-12 (e.g., learning to get along with peers or developing a conscience)

adolescence ages 12-18 (e.g., preparing for marriage and an economic career)

early adulthood ages 19-30 (e.g., selecting a mate and starting a family)

middle age ages 30-60 (e.g., assisting teenage children to become responsible adults and developing leisure-time activities)

later maturity age 60 and beyond (e.g., dealing with the death of a spouse and adjusting to retirement)

Jane Loevinger

another popular stage theorist; focused on ego development via seven stages and two transitions, the highest level being “integrated” similar to Maslow’s self-actualized or Kohlberg’s self-accepted universal principles stage

Object

in psychoanalysis, describes the target of one’s love

Sibling rivalry

competition between siblings

Primal scene

a psychoanalytic concept that suggests that a young child witnesses his parents having sexual intercourse or is seduced by a parent and provides impetus for later neuroses

Preconscious psychic processes

the preconscious mind is deeper than the conscious mind but not as deep as the unconscious

preconscious material is not conscious but can be recalled without the use of special psychoanalytic techniques

BASIC-ID

an acronym posited by behaviorist Arnold Lazarus who feels his approach is multimodal relying on a variety of therapeutic techniques

Behavior, Affective responses, Sensations, Imagery, Cognitions, Interpersonal relationships, and Drugs

Animism

occurs when a child acts as if nonliving objects have lifelike abilities and tendencies

Wish fulfillment

a Freudian notion that dreams and slips of the tongue are actually wish fulfillments

Reasons for slow development of elementary school counseling

1. the majority of people believed hat school teachers could double as counselors

2. counseling was conceptualized as focusing on vocational issues

3. secondary schools utilized social workers and psychologists who would intervene if emotional problems were still an issue as the child got olde

Senile psychosis

condition brought on via old age; used in a looser sense to imply loss of memory

Structuralistic viewpoint

each stage is a way of making sense out of the world

Down syndrome

broad facial profile and short stature, the result of a chromosomal abnormality results in an IQ between 50 and 80

intelligence aspect can be influenced by early intervention, the environment, proper medical care, and dedicated educators

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

an amino acid metabolic difficulty that causes intellectual or physical disabilities unless the baby is placed on a special diet

Klinefelter’s syndrome

a male has an extra X chromosome (i.e., XXY), is tall, has a high pitched voice, and IQ approximately 10 points below norm, shows no masculinity at puberty, and may be infertile

Turner’s syndrome

a female has no gonads or sex hormones and is unable to have children

Hemophilia

a condition where blood coagulation is such that even a tiny injury could cause severe bleeding

Sickle cell anemia or sickle cell disease (SCD)

afflicts primarily African Americans and causes anemia, pain, short stature, reduced life span, and organ damage