presidents

Harry S. Truman

(1945–1953) Democrat

• believed the federal government had a duty to end racial discrimination

• argued that African Americans deserved equal employment, educational opportunities, and military service

• publicly condemned segregation and lynching

• issued Executive Order 9981 in 1948 to desegregate the armed forces

• proposed federal anti-lynching legislation and a civil rights bill, both blocked by Congress

• established the President’s Committee on Civil Rights in 1946

• appointed African Americans to federal positions, including William Hastie as a federal judge and Robert C. Weaver to housing-related roles

Dwight D. Eisenhower

(1953–1961) Republican

• believed in enforcing the law and supported civil rights in principle

• acted cautiously to avoid alienating Southern politicians

• preferred gradual change and federal enforcement rather than activism

• sent federal troops to Little Rock in 1957 to enforce school desegregation

• signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to protect voting rights

• sent federal marshals to protect black voters and civil rights activists in the South

• strengthened the Justice Department’s Civil Rights Division

• appointed Robert Weaver as Assistant Secretary of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the first African American in that position

John F. Kennedy

(1961–1963) Democrat

• initially cautious on civil rights to maintain Southern support

• became increasingly vocal after protests and violent events highlighted racial injustice

• believed federal intervention was necessary to secure civil rights

• protected James Meredith’s enrollment at the University of Mississippi with federal marshals in 1962

• supported Freedom Riders and sit-in campaigns

• proposed civil rights legislation that became the Civil Rights Act of 1964

• appointed Thurgood Marshall as Solicitor General and Robert C. Weaver to HUD positions, increasing African American representation

Lyndon B. Johnson

(1963–1969) Democrat

• committed to using federal power to end racial discrimination

• believed civil rights were a moral and political necessity

• sought equality in voting, education, and employment

• signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ending segregation and banning employment discrimination

• signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 removing literacy tests and poll taxes

• wnforced school desegregation

• promoted affirmative action via Executive Orders increasing minority hiring

• passed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 removing racial quotas

• appointed Thurgood Marshall as the first African American Supreme Court Justice

Richard Nixon

(1969–1974) Republican

• emphasized law and order and was cautious on civil rights

• supported pragmatic measures like affirmative action but avoided controversial reforms

• believed civil rights progress should balance social stability

• Philadelphia Plan → federal contractors had to hire minorities in construction = low skill job resulted in AA’s hiring from 1% to 13%

  • Griggs v Duke Power Company 1971 ruled affirmative action consitutional

• ended desegregation in Southern schools using federal authority

• appointed Robert C Weaver as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

• Equal Opportunity Act 1972

• bussing

Gerald Ford

(1974–1977) Republican

• supported civil rights but did not prioritize them

• focused on enforcing existing laws rather than creating new legislation

• believed federal oversight should ensure compliance with equal opportunity laws

• continued enforcement of civil rights legislation

• promoted affirmative action and equal employment opportunities

• maintained federal support for desegregation and minority access to federal programs

• appointed African Americans to administrative roles in federal agencies

Jimmy Carter

(1977–1981) Democrat

• prioritized human rights and equality for minorities

• believed in representation and access to opportunities for African Americans

• supported affirmative action and desegregation initiatives

• appointed Patricia Roberts Harris as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the first African American woman in the Cabinet

• appointed Andrew Young as ambassador to the United Nations

• promoted desegregation in schools and minority access to federal housing

• strengthened federal enforcement of equal employment opportunity regulations

Ronald Reagan

(1981–1989) (1981–1989)

• conservative and favored minimal federal intervention

• opposed extensive affirmative action and promoted a color-blind approach

• focused on law and order rather than proactive civil rights policies

• reduced federal enforcement of civil rights regulations

• limited affirmative action programs

• cut funding for civil rights offices

• appointed fewer African Americans to key government positions than previous administrations

• his war on drugs and crime legislation affected black people more

• he cut funding on social programmes

• signed Martin Luther King day into law in 1983

• vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act in 1987

• opposed 1960 civil rights legislation

George H. W. Bush

(1989–1993) Republican

• supported civil rights in principle but acted cautiously

• promoted equality in hiring and workplace protection

• favoured incremental change rather than broad new legislation

• signed the Civil Rights Act of 1991 strengthening anti-discrimination laws in employment

• promoted minority hiring in federal agencies

• appointed African Americans to positions including William H. Gray as director of the Office of Drug Policy

• reinforced workplace discrimination enforcement and supported minority educational programs

• appointed a conservative black supreme court justice, Clarence Thomas

• vetoed a civil rights bill designed to challenge job discrimination

• demonised opponent Dukakis for being ‘soft on crime’

• opposed bussing and affimative action