Unit 2 - Cognition

Top-Down Processing

Uses higher-level cognitive processes, such as expectations and prior knowledge to influence the interpretation of incoming stimuli

-Uses pre-existing mental models to guide perception and understanding

Bottom-Up Processing

Involves taking in raw sensory information from the environment and processing it without relying on prior knowledge or expectations

-Gradually builds up to higher-level perception and understanding

Schemas

Cognitive framework, concepts, or understanding through which we organize and interpret information

Personal Contexts

Our personal experiences, culture, and other individual factors affect what we notice, what we focus on, and how we interpret incoming stimuli

Perceptual Set

The assumptions and mental tendencies that shape how we perceive stimuli, and guide top-down processing

Texture Gradients

Closer → Larger grains, farther apart

Farther → Smaller grains, closer together

Relative Size

Closer → Bigger

Farther → Smaller

Interposition

Closer → Partially obscures other object

Farther → Is partially obscured by other object

Linear Perspective

Closer → Parallel lines seem to diverge as they move away from horizon

Farther → Parallel lines seem to converge as they approach horizon

Aerial Perspective

Closer → Images seen crisper, more clearly delineated

Farther → Images seen fuzzier, less clearly delineated

Location in the Picture Plane

Closer → Above horizon, objects are higher; below horizon, objects are lower

Farther → Above horizon, objects are lower; below horizon, objects are higher

Motion Parallax

Closer → Objects approaching get larger

Farther → Objects departing get smaller

Binocular Convergence

Closer → Eyes feel tug towards nose

Farther → Eyes relax outward towards ears

Binocular Disparity

Closer → Huge discrepancy between image seen by either eye

Farther → Small discrepancy between image seen by either eye

Selective Attention

Focusing on one thing and filtering out everything else

Cocktail Party Effect

Your ability to focus on one voice in a noisy room, but still notice when your name is said nearby

Inattentional Blindness

When you miss something obvious because your attention is focused elsewhere

Change Blindness

When you fail to notice a change in your environment because your attention isn’t focused on it

Perceptual Constancies

Our brain’s way of keeping the world stable by seeing objects as the same size, shape, color, or brightness - even when the image on our eyes changes because of distance, angle, or lighting

Assimilation

Improving existing knowledge of something thanks to new but congruent information

Ex: A child owns a poodle. They see a different dog breed and say it’s a dog. A parent says yes, but a different breed. The child’s ‘dog’ schema is now improved and refined now knowing 2 breeds of dogs.

Accommodation

Amending existing knowledge of something thanks to new information that contradicts previous thinking

Ex: A child owns a poodle. They see a cat and notice it looks like a poodle. The parents correct the child and tells the it’s a cat. The child now develops a new schema for ‘cat’

Algorithms

Attempting all solutions until one is found

-Slower process but guaranteed accuracy

Heuristics

Using mental shortcuts, prior experiences, and expectations to make judgements

-Quicker but much less accurate decision making. Often relies on stereotypes or overemphasis on vivid examples

Mental Set

Tendency to approach a problem in a certain way because that way had been success in the past

Priming

Our brain is ready to respond in a certain way because of something we saw, heard, or experienced - even if we’re not conscious of it

Framing

The way something is presented to us affects the way in which we approach or consider it

Divergent Thinking

The ability to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions in an effort to find one that works. It starts from a common point and moves outward in diverging directions to involve a variety of aspects or perspectives

Convergent Thinking

The ability to put a number of different pieces of perspectives of a topic together in some organized, logical, manner to find a single answer. It involves focusing on a finite number of solutions rather than proposing multiple solutions

Ex: Standard IQ Tests

Gambler’s Fallacy

Reasoning error where we think the outcome of a random event is more (or less) likely based on previous outcomes

Ex: A coin has come up heads 4 times in a row, so you think tails is likely to come on the next flip, but each flip is always a 50/50

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Reasoning error where we continue a bad behavior because we previously invested in it

Ex: You’re 30 minutes into a terrible movie you payed for, but you continue to watch it because you spent money. You’re now paying with your money and time

Explicit Memory

Memory that can be described or explained; includes episodic and semantic memory

-Stored in Hippocampus

Ex: Your brother’s birthday

Implicit Memory

Information that we store, and that influences us, but that we can’t describe and are not always conscious of

-Stored in the cerebellum

Ex: Knowing how to ride a bike