Nutrition through the Life Span: Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence

For the first six months

exclusively feed infants human milk. Continue to feed infants human milk through at least the first year of life, and longer if desired. Feed infants iron-fortified infant formula during the first year of life when human milk is unavailable.

All infants need

supplemental vit. d

At about six months

introduce infants to nutrient-dense complementary foods.

• Introduce infants to potentially allergenic foods along with other complementary foods.

Encourage infants and toddlers to consume

a variety of foods from all food groups. Include foods rich in iron and zinc, particularly for infants fed human milk.

Avoid foods and beverages

with added sugars. Infants and young children have no room in their diet for added sugars.

After infants wean from human milk or formula

transition to a healthy dietary pattern.

An infant’s birthweight doubles around ______ and triples around ________

five months

1 year

Infant and Adult Heart Rate, Respiration Rate, and Energy Needs Compared

	Infants	Adults
Heart rate (beats/minute)	120 to 140	70 to 80
Respiration rate (breaths/minute)	20 to 40	15 to 20
Energy needs (kcal/body weight)	45/lb (100/kg)	<18/lb (<40/kg)

How often do newborns need to eat

During the first few weeks, approximately 8 to 12 feedings a day—on demand, as soon as the infant shows early signs of hunger such as increased alertness, activity, or suckling motions—promote optimal milk production and infant growth

what is the carbohydrate found in human milk and regular formula

lactose

alpha-lactalbumin

a major protein in human breast milk, as opposed to casein (CAY-seen), a major protein in cow’s milk.

The lipids in breast milk (and infant formula) provide the infant’s main source of

energy

Supplements for Infants

Vit D., iron and fluoride may be recommended

Colostrum

milklike secretion from the breasts, present during the first few days after delivery before milk appears; rich in protective factors.

Antibodies in human milk

Offer protection in the upper respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract, preventing adherence of pathogens to the mucosa, protecting against invasive infections; may stimulate the infant’s own immune system

bifidus factors in human milk

Favor the growth of the “friendly” bacterium Lactobacillus bifidus in the infant’s digestive tract so that other, harmful bacteria cannot become established

Growth factors in human milk

• Epidermal growth factor: Regulates cell growth, proliferation, and differentiation

• Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-b): Anti-inflammatory; epithelial barrier function

Lactadherin in human milk

Inhibits binding of pathogens to the intestinal mucosa

Lactoferrin in human milk

Prevents bacteria from getting the iron they need to grow; helps absorb iron into the infant’s bloodstream; kills some bacteria directly; antiviral effect

Lysosomes in human milk

Together with lactoferrin, kills bacteria

Oligosaccharides in human milk

Help to establish and maintain growth of desired bacteria in gastrointestinal tract; prevent binding of pathogens in gastrointestinal tract

Wean

to gradually replace breast milk with infant formula or other foods.

Who sets the standards for formula in the United States?

U.S. standards are based on AAP recommendations, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandates quality control procedures to ensure that these standards are met

When should a child transition to cow’s milk?

Once an infant has reached a year of age and is receiving at least two-thirds of total daily food energy from a balanced mixture of cereals, vegetables, fruit, and other foods, whole cow’s milk is an acceptable and recommended accompanying beverage.

Complementary foods

nutrient- and energy-containing solid or semisolid foods (or liquids) fed to infants in addition to breast milk or infant formula.

Responsive feeding

an interactive feeding process in which a young child signals hunger and satiety vocally, through facial expressions, and through motor actions; the caregiver recognizes these cues and responds promptly

baby led weaning

a method of introducing complementary foods to infants in which the infant is offered a variety of single, graspable, soft foods to eat.

Iron Sources for Infants

Iron-fortified infant cereals ); cooked, crumbled ground beef; mashed sweet potatoes or oven baked sweet potato strips; tofu; scrambled egg strips; cooked chicken; and a variety of legumes cooked until soft help provide the needed quantity of iron to infants.

Sources of Zinc

protein foods such as meats, poultry, seafood, eggs, and legumes. Zinc is less well absorbed from legumes than from the other protein foods.

As a percentage of an infant's body weight, infants need more than ____ as much of most nutrients than adults do.

two times

Why do breastfed infants typically need to eat more frequently than formula-fed infants?

human milk is more easily digested by infants

How has a two-year old’s body changed since infancy

The two-year-old has lost much of the baby fat; the muscles (especially in the back, buttocks, and legs) have firmed and strengthened; and the leg bones have lengthened.

Carbohydrate recommendations for children after one year are therefore _______________ as for adults

the same

fiber recommendations are _______ for younger children with low energy intakes than for older children with high energy intakes

lower

Recommended daily amounts

Food Group	1000 kcal	1200 kcal	1400 kcal	1600 kcal	1800 kcal
Fruit	1 c	1 c	½	½	½
Vegetables	1 c	½	½	2 c	½
Grains	3 oz	4 oz	5 oz	5 oz	6 oz
Protein Foods	2 oz	3 oz	4 oz	5 oz	5 oz
Milk	2 c	½	½	3 c	3 c

Short term hunger

impairs the child’s ability to pay attention and to be productive. Hungry children are irritable, apathetic, and uninterested in their environment

Long term hunger

impairs the child’s ability to pay attention and to be productive. Hungry children are irritable, apathetic, and uninterested in their environment

Why are children who are malnourished more prone to lead poisoning

They absorb more lead if their stomachs are empty; if they have low intakes of calcium, zinc, vitamin C, or vitamin D; and, of greatest concern because it is so common, if they have an iron deficiency

Food allergy

an adverse reaction to food that involves an immune response; also called food-hypersensitivity reactions.

anaphylactic shock

a life-threatening whole-body allergic reaction to an offending substance

anaphylactic shock most often caused by

peanuts, tree nuts, milk, eggs, wheat, soybeans, fish, or shellfish

Symptoms of Anaphylactic shock include

Tingling sensation in the mouth Swelling of the tongue and throat Irritated, reddened eyes Difficulty breathing, asthma Hives, swelling, rashes Vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea Drop in blood pressure Loss of consciousness

adverse reactions

unusual responses to food (including intolerances and allergies).

food intolerances

adverse reactions to foods or food additives that do not involve the immune system.

tolerance level

the maximum amount of residue permitted in a food when a pesticide is used according to the label directions

Hyperactivity

Inattentive and impulsive behavior that is more frequent and severe than is typical of others of a similar age; professionally called attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

adolescence

the period of growth from the beginning of puberty until full maturity. Timing of adolescence varies from person to person.

puberty

the period in life in which a person becomes physically capable of reproduction.

Iron RDA for males

• 9–13 yr: 8 mg/day

• 9–13 yr in growth spurt: 10.9 mg/day

• 14–18 yr: 11 mg/day

  • 14–18 yr in growth spurt: 13.9 mg/day

Iron RDA for females

• 9–13 yr: 8 mg/day

• 9–13 yr in menarche: 10.5 mg/day

• 9–13 yr in menarche and growth spurt: 11.6 mg/day

• 14–18 yr: 15 mg/day

  • 14–18 yr in growth spurt: 16.1 mg/day

gatekeeper

with respect to nutrition, a key person who controls other people’s access to foods and thereby exerts a profound impact on their nutrition.

Three symptoms of lead toxicity are

diarrhea, irritability, and fatigue

When introducing new foods to children

offer one new food at the beginning of the meal.

During the growth spurt of adolescence

differences in body composition between males and females become apparent.

Two nutrients that are usually lacking in adolescents’ diets are:

Iron and calcium

At six to eight months of age, an infant is able to perform which new developmental feeding skill?

Self feeding finger foods

When considering the developmental and nutrient needs of one-year-olds, which feeding guideline would be most helpful for parents to implement

let children choose how much they will eat

Which of the following is true regarding the vitamin and mineral needs during childhood?

Fluoride, iron and vitamin D may require supplementation in some children.

To prevent iron deficiency, which food might be recommended for a child's snacks or meals?

bean dip and tortilla

A deficiency in which nutrient could lead to impaired learning and memory

iron

Which food allergy is a child least likely to outgrow with age?

shellfish

By age 4, a child is able to perform which age-appropriate new food skill?

use all utensils and a napkin

Which nutrient is in higher demand once an adolescent female begins menstruating?

iron

What factor has been shown to contribute to poor nutritional health among adolescents?

many teens consume energy drinks on a regular basis

Maternal malnutrition at a critical period of development may have lifelong effects on an individual's pattern of genetic expression and on the tendency to develop obesity, which is a concept known as _____

fetal programming

Which value describes an acceptable LDL cholesterol level for children and adolescents?

<110mg/dl