General Psychology Rutgers Exam I

What is psychology?

the scientific study of thought, behavior, and emotion

Biological/Neuroscientific Perspective

How physical systems, like the brain, affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts

(Ex. Neurotransmitters in serial killer's brain)

Evolutionary Perspective

The natural selection of traits

(Ex. Humans who isolated themselves unable to survive and reproduce-->died off-->why humans need social interaction now)

Behavior Genetics Perspective

The contribution of genes and environment to behaviors

(Ex. Intelligence is affected by both genes and environment)

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective

The unconscious dynamics of the individual

(Ex. How unconscious thoughts affect your moods)

Behavioral Perspective

Learning via reinforcements and punishments

(Ex. When you're kind and generous, people smile at you, so you learned to be that way)

Cognitive Perspective

How people reason, remember and interpret

(Ex. Individual perceptions affect mood and behavior)

Sociocultural Perspective

How social and cultural forces shape individuals' behaviors

(Ex. Men are seen as more aggressive in American culture-->American men are expected to be tough/insensitive, so they are)

Wilhelm Wundt

Had the first psychological laboratory in 1879

Introspection

Wilhelm Wundt Asking people to report what they are feeling

EB Thitchner

Uses structuralism

Structuralism

The analysis of mental structures (what is the mind?)

William James

Uses functionalism

Functionalism

The study of how the mind works (why does the mind do what it does?)

Hindsight Bias

After an outcome occurs, it's easy for people to say they could have predicted it. It's easier to look back once you know the outcome, which is why people think research is not needed and psych is common sense

The Scientific Method

The testing of ideas with the use of data/evidence (EMPIRICISM)

-First you formulate the research question

-Then you formulate the hypothesis

-Then you design the study to test the hypothesis

-Then you perform the study -Then interpret data

-Then communicate the findings

Hypothesis

A testable prediction (if, then statement)

(Ex. If people do expressive writing, then their stress levels will go down)

Operational Definition

A statement about the procedures the researcher used to measure a variable

( Ex. The designed study to measure stress was measuring heart rate levels. You must operationally define what you mean by stress levels/expressive writing)

Case Study

An in depth analysis of one subject (or a small sample), there is usually something unusual about the subject

Limits of a Case Study

You can't make generalizations/conclusions about the entire population based on a case study

Naturalistic Observation

Describing and measuring people's and/or animals' behavior systematically in a regular environment

Limits of Naturalistic Observation

You can't make inferences on causation because of this

Survey Method

Asking people questions about their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions, then recording answers

Wording Effect on Survey Method

The way you ask the questions in a survey is important; people react differently to different wording (you should do a pilot survey to anticipate how they will react)

Response Bias

Sometimes, people don't answer truthfully either because they don't remember or because they're motivated to present themselves in the best light

Random Sampling

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being studied

Correlational Method

Examines the strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A measure of the strength and association between two variables that ranges from -1 to 1

-Even if the correlation is closer to 0 than -1 or 1, it can still be meaningful

-If it is closer to 1 or -1, then it is strongly correlated

Positive Correlation

The variables change in the same direction

(Ex. The more time people spend studying, the higher their grades)

Negative Correlation

The variables change in opposite directions

(Ex. The more time people spend on Facebook, the lower their happiness levels)

Does correlation indicate causation?

DOES NOT indicate causation

Instead of A causing B, B could be causing A, or C could be causing A and B

Experimentation

When the researcher changes/manipulates one variable in a controlled situation and observes the effects of that change on the other aspects of the situation, the ONLY research design that can infer causation

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the experimenter

(Ex. having some people exercise and others not exercise)

Dependent Variable

The variable affected by the independent variable, the outcome variable

(Ex. depression in response to exercise levels)

Experimental Condition Group

The group that receives the treatment or stimulus

(Ex. the group who does expressive writing)

Control Condition Group

The one that does NOT receive the treatment or stimulus, the comparison group

(Ex. the group who doesn't do expressive writing)

Random Assignment

Participants have an equal chance of being in every experimental group

Placebo Effect

Observed improvement due to an inert treatment, due to their expectations

Expectancy Effect

Results stem from expectations held by the experimenter leading unintentionally to behavior toward the participant that, in turn, affects the participants' behaviors

Double-Blind Procedure

A method of controlling placebo and expectancy effects, when neither the participants nor the researchers know who has been assigned to the experimental/control group

Single-Blind Procedure

The participants don't know who has been assigned to the experimental/control group

Confounding Variable

A variable that is potentially responsible for the results, but is not the variable of interest (the independent variable)

Experimental Control

The researcher makes sure thaT no other factors are changing that could affect the dependent variable, other than the independent variable

Generalizability

The applicability of an outcome to other groups and settings (can the results apply to other situations?)

Replication

The repetition of a study

Measures of Central Tendency

The description of the typical behavior for the sample data as a whole

Mean

The average of all scores

Median

The middle score

Mode

The most frequently occurring score

Statistical Significance

The probability that results are due to chance, uses the p-value (greater than .05 is not good --> 5% is due to chance, 95% is not due to chance)

Neurons

Specialized cell that transmits neural messages to other neurons, glands, and muscles. A nervous system cell

Dendrite

Receives neural messages from other neurones

Cell Body

Also called the soma, houses the DNA

Axon

A thin tube that transmits neural messages

Glial Cells

Provides structure for neurons

-Communicate with eachother

-Respond to and release neurotransmitters

-Important in learning/memory

Myelin Sheath

Formed by some glial cells, specialized cells that are wrapped around the axon to help transmit messages

Action Potential

An electrochemical impulse that travels within a neuron from the cell body down to the end of the axon

The stronger the sensation, the more neurons

Threshold

The level of electric charge needed to stimulate action potential

All-Or-None Response

Once the electric charge of the neuron reaches a certain threshold, it fires an action potential

Synapse

A junction between 2 neurons, impulses are transmitted across synapse via neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that travel across synapse from one neuron to receptors on the next cell (specific to receptors)

Reuptake

The sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters

Inhibitory Signals

They decrease likelihood that neurons will fire

Excitatory Signals

They increase the likelihood that neurons will fire

AcetylCholine

Affects the neurons involved in muscle action, learning, and memory

Endorphins

Reduce pain and promote pleasure

Dopamine

Affects neurons involved in voluntary movement, reward, learning, and memory (reward and motivation and voluntary movement)

Serotonin

Affects neurons involved in sleep, appetite, and mood

GABA

Inhibitory and calming, prevents action potentials and brain activity

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Involved in stress response and arousal, similar structure and function

Agonists

Increases the normal activity of a neurotransmitter; forms themselves into the same shape

Antagonists

Decreases the activity of a neurotransmitter, blocks it from binding to the receptor by getting stuck in the receptor

Motor Neurons

Carry signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles, skin, and glands; tells them to move

Sensory Neurons

Carry messages from receptors to spinal cord and brain, to tell what sensation is being felt

Interneurons

Receive signals from sensory neurons and other interneurons and send impulses to other interneurons or motor neurons

Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and spinal cord, responds to sensory information and sends messages to muscles, glands, and organs

Spinal Cord

An extension of the brain that handles both incoming and outcoming messages and acts as a bridge between the brain and body below neck

Reflexes

Automatic responses that occur without any brain involvement

Peripheral Nervous System

Consists of all of nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord, allows for communication between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Somatic Nervous System

Voluntary, sensory and motor pathways

Autonomic Nervous System

Automatic responses; contains the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic nervous system

Increases psychological arousal

Parasympathetic nervous system

Decreases arousal

The Endocrine System

Collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things.

Hormones

Chemicals secreted by endocrine glands into bloodstream

Hypothalmus

Brain structure, controls the pituitary gland, maintains internal balance; regulates eating, drinking, sexual behavior, body temperature, biological clock, and endocrine activity

Pituitary Gland

"master gland" that produces oxytocin

Adrenal Glands

Important in mood, energy level, and coping with stress

Lesion Method

Damaging or removing sections of brains of animals

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Detects electrical activity of neurons in particular regions of the brain

PET Scan

Records biochemical changes in brain as they are happening in different locations

MRI

Uses magnetic field to show picture of soft tissues

fMRI

Measures relative activity of various brain areas during tasks

Brainstem

Controls involuntary behaviors and "primitive behaviors" under voluntary control

Medulla

Controls bodily functions that do not have to be consciously willed

Pons

Regulates sleep/arousal and coordinates movements from the left and right side of the body

Thalamus

A relay station that directs incoming information from sense receptors to cerebral cortex

Reticular Formation

Controls arousal/consciousness (sleep/wake); attention

Cerebellum

Concerned primarily with coordination of movement, balance, muscle coordination; memory of simple skills, language, planning, and reasoning

Limbic System

Emotions, memory, additional control over instinctive behaviors