MCAT Behavioral Sciences - Social Structure and Demographics

747

Sociology

study of society; how we create it, how we interact within and change it, and how we define what is normal and abnormal

micro-society

family groups and local communities

meso-community

organizations, institutions, and ethnic subcultures

macro-society

national and international systems

theoretical approaches to sociology,

models to help analyze and explain aspects of human social behavior

symbolic interactionism

how humans interact and communicate using language, writing, and other symbols; attempts to understand human action and interaction by studying the symbols we use to communicate

pioneered by influential sociologist George Herbert Mead

cannot account for macro-level sociological phenomena

symbol

Any object, image, sound, or action that carries meaning to humans

ex. physical objects, spoken words, body language and hand gestures

assumptions of symbolic interactionism

1. Humans act toward symbols based on the meanings that these symbols carry.

2. The meanings symbols carry come from social interaction.

3. Humans interpret the meaning of symbols, and this interpretation influences action.

Social constructionism

attempt to understand a society through the study of the society’s social constructs

cannot account for macro-level sociological phenomena

social construct

any idea that has been created and accepted by the people in a society

ex. symbols, abstract ideas, physical objects (money), work ethic, acceptable dress, and gender roles

Rational Choice / (Social) Exchange Theory

humans will make rational choices to further their own self-interests; people weigh the costs and benefits when making choices, ranking their options based on maximizing perceived benefit; influenced by economics, applied to social interaction; evaluate whether there is reciprocity and balance in social relationships

micro- to meso-level approach to sociology; does not easily explain charitable, illogical, unselfish, or altruistic behavior

conflict theory

how groups with little power in society can rise up and create more equality

origins in the writings of Karl Marx, a 19th century social philosopher who examined the influence of capitalism on 19th century society

explains macro-leve lsocietal phenomena, but not very effective for explaining the choices of individuals; less effective than some other models at explaining social cohesion, cooperation, and altruism

Capitalism

economic system in which individuals and corporations, rather than governments, own and control the means of production

the means of production

property, machinery, factories, or any other means of creating a saleable good or service

capitalist (bourgeoisie) class

social class that controls the means of production

worker (proletariat) class

social class that performs manual labor but does not own the means of production

interest groups

individuals can organize groups with common goals and interests, through which they can use tools such as protesting or voting to enact change and equalize power

structural-functionalism

concerned with social cohesion and stability; society as an organism, each group has a role to play in the overall health and operation; different groups of society work together in an unconscious, almost automatic way toward maintenance of equilibrium

Émile Durkheim interested in how large societies survive over long time periods

applies to macro-level; not well suited for explaining social change

function

the contribution made by that group to the system

manifest function

beneficial intended consequence of the actions of a group within a society

latent functions

unintended but beneficial consequences of the actions of a group within a society

dysfunctions

negative consequences (intended or unintended) of the actions of a group within a society

Feminist theory

critiques the institutional power structures that disadvantage women in society; offshoot of conflict theory

patriarchy

men seeking to preserve their position of power over women through societal privilege and institutional discrimination

glass ceiling

processes that limit the progress of women to the highest job positions because of invisible social barriers to promotion

glass escalator

invisible social forces sometimes push men up to higher positions even in cases where men do not seek to climb the job ladder, especially in traditionally female occupations

Social institutions

well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture; regulate the behavior of individuals in core areas of society

Needs met by Social Institution: Education

Transmit knowledge and skills across generations

Statuses in Social Institution: Education

Teacher, student, dean, principal

Important Values in Social Institution: Education

Academic honesty, good grades

Norms in Social Institution: Education

Doing homework, preparing for lectures, being kind to other students

Needs met by Social Institution: Family

Regulate reproduction, socialize and protect children

Statuses in Social Institution: Family

Father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, grandparent

Important Values in Social Institution: Family

Sexual fidelity, providing for children, keeping a clean home, respect for caregivers

Norms in Social Institution: Family

Having as many children as one desires, being faithful to one’s spouse

Needs met by Social Institution: Religion

Concerns about life and death, the meaning of suffering and loss, desire to connect with a creator

Statuses in Social Institution: Religion

Clergy, worshipper, teacher, disciple, missionary, prophet, convert

Important Values in Social Institution: Religion

God and holy texts should be honored

Norms in Social Institution: Religion

Going to services, following teachings of the religion, applying beliefs outside of worship

Needs met by Social Institution: Government

Maintain social order, enforce laws

Statuses in Social Institution: Government

President, senator, lobbyist, voter, candidate

Important Values in Social Institution: Government

Transparency, accountability, professionalism

Norms in Social Institution: Government

Acting in the best interest of constituents, debating political issues

Needs met by Social Institution: Economy

Organize money, goods, and services

Statuses in Social Institution: Economy

Worker, boss, buyer, seller, creditor, debtor, advertiser

Important Values in Social Institution: Economy

Making money, paying bills on time, producing efficiently

Norms in Social Institution: Economy

Maximizing profits, the customer is always right, working hard

Needs met by Social Institution: Medicine

Heal the sick and injured, care for the dying

Statuses in Social Institution: Medicine

Doctor, nurse, pharmacist, insurer, patient

Important Values in Social Institution: Medicine

Hippocratic oath, staying in good health, following care providers’ recommendations

Norms in Social Institution: Medicine

Beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for autonomy, justice

family

group of people related either by consanguinity or affinity; forms the basis for social order

patterns of kinship

the pattern of culturally recognized relationships between family members

stages of coupling

courtship, cohabitation, engagement, and marriage

Parenting

involves socialization of children; varied definitions of the role of father, mother, and child; and single parenting, same-sex parenting, adoption, and fostering

Divorce rates

rose significantly in the second half of the twentieth century but have started to drop over the last two decades

domestic violence

seen across all social classes and genders and can include not only physical violence, but sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and financial abuse; #1 cause of injury to American women; most common in families with drug abuse, especially alcoholism

Elder abuse

seen across all socioeconomic classes, and most commonly manifests as neglect of an older relative—although physical, psychological, and financial abuse may occur as well

child abuse

most commonly manifests as neglect, although physical, sexual, and psychological abuse are also common

signs suggestive of nonaccidental trauma

broken femur in a child who is too young to have begun walking or burn marks on the buttocks from placing a child in scalding water

mandated reporter

legally required to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse, but not domestic abuse (counseling and information about shelters for victims of intimate partner violence should be provided)

Education

aims to provide a population with a set of skills that will be useful to them or to society

formal education

takes place in a setting designated for educational purposes using a prescribed curriculum

hidden curriculum

transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students

Teacher expectancy

the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students; self-fulfilling prophecy

religion

pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence

Religiosity

how religious one considers oneself to be, and includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself

75% in Big Five (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism)

denominations

groups in religion that may share certain beliefs and practices but not others; often coexist, but can come into conflict when their religious beliefs promote opposing values

church

a large, universal religious group and the building in which the congregation of such a group meets

sect

a religious group that has chosen to break off from the parent religion

cult

religious sect with extreme or deviant philosophies

secularization

shift away from religion; moves from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking

fundamentalism

maintenance of strict adherence to religious

Government

systematic arrangements of political relationships, activities, and social structures that affect rule making, representation of the individual in society, rights and privileges

economy

systematic arrangements of apital relationships, activities, and social structures that affect division of labor, and production of goods and services

democracy

allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office

Monarchies

include a royal ruler (a king or queen), although the ruler’s powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution, a parliamentary system, or some other legislative body

dictatorship

system where a single person holds power, and usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to this power

theocracy

system where power is held by religious leaders

charismatic authority

leader with a compelling personality

Capitalist economy

focus on free market trade and laissez-faire policies, where success or failure in business is primarily driven by consumerism with as little intervention from central governing bodies as possible

division of labor

specific components of a larger task (say, developing, manufacturing, quality testing, and marketing goods) are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals → specialization and efficiency

Socialist economy

treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system

healthcare / medicine

aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual, family, community, and society as a whole

• Increased access to care

• Decreased costs of healthcare

• Prevention of disease before it occurs

• Association of patients with a primary care physician or a patient-centered medical home

• Increased education for the public with public health outreach

• Decreased paternalism (doctor knows best mentality)

• Reduced economic conflicts of interest for physicians

• Life course approach to health

Life course approach to health

maintaining and considering a comprehensive view of the patient’s history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms

sick role

patients are not responsible for their illness and are exempt from normal social roles but had the obligation to want to become well and to seek out competent help

does not fit patients with chronic, long-term, or permanent conditions

medicalized

now defined and treated as medical conditions

illness experience

the ways in which people, rather than doctors, define and adjust to changes in their health

disease without illness

someone living a full and productive life with a manageable condition such as HIV

illness without disease

a person experiences somatic symptoms as a result of psychological stress

epidemiology

the study of health and its determinants within a society

social epidemiology

the study of the effects of institutions, social structures, and relationships on health; racial and economic inequality or government safety net legislation on health and access to healthcare

Culture

encompassing the entire lifestyle for a given group; binds our nation-states, political institutions, marketplaces, religions, and ideologies; flavors our interpretations of the world; generally passed through familial lines; what makes human societies unique from one another

Ethnography

study of cultures and customs

ethnographic methods

experimental methods used to study the ethnicity or culture of a group

material culture

includes the physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools, and their meanings

artifacts

material items that people make, possess, and value

Symbolic / nonmaterial culture

focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people, in mottos, songs, catchphrases, or themes that are pervasive

culture lag

Symbolic culture is usually slower to change than material culture

ex. American culture prizes individuality and privacy → the development of smartphones and social media push toward a more community-oriented and less private world

Language

most highly developed and complex symbol system used by most cultures; spoken, written, or signed symbols, which are regulated according to certain rules of grammar and syntax; enables us to share our ideas, thoughts, experiences, discoveries, fears, plans, and desires with others; writing extends our capacity to communicate across both spatial and temporal boundaries