Memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval & Types in Psychology

Memory (3 Basic Tasks)

Encoding, storage, and retrieval: taking in information, keeping it, and accessing it later.

Encoding

Transforming sensory input into a form the brain can store.

Storage

Retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of incoming sensory information; extremely short duration and large capacity.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds.

Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

Active processing system that temporarily holds and manipulates information; lasts about 20 seconds without rehearsal.

Central Executive

Directs attention and coordinates the components of working memory.

Phonological Loop

Handles verbal and auditory information in working memory.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Handles visual and spatial information in working memory.

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units to increase memory capacity.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in working memory; weak for long-term retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information with existing knowledge; strong for long-term storage.

Levels of Processing Model

Deeper, meaningful processing leads to better memory than shallow processing.

Structural Encoding

Encoding based on appearance.

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding based on sound.

Semantic Encoding

Encoding based on meaning; deepest level.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent and limitless store of knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Skills and associations learned without conscious awareness.

Procedural Memory

Memory for motor skills and habits (bike riding, playing piano).

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Facts and experiences we consciously recall.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal events and experiences.

Semantic Memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help access stored memories.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues (essay, free response).

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information (multiple choice).

Relearning

Faster reacquisition of previously learned information.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid, emotionally charged memory.

Eidetic Memory

Extremely rare ability to recall visual images with high accuracy.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

Ability to recall nearly every day of one's life.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform tasks in the future.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information like space, time, and frequency.

Effortful Processing

Conscious, deliberate encoding that requires attention.

Hippocampus

Temporary processing site for explicit memories; involved in memory consolidation.

Memory Consolidation

Process where memories stabilize and move to long-term storage.

Reconsolidation

Retrieved memories can be modified before being stored again.

Cerebellum

Forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning.

Basal Ganglia

Involved in procedural memory for motor skills.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter important for learning and memory.

Serotonin (memory)

Strengthens synaptic connections during learning.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of neural pathways from repeated stimulation; biological basis of learning.

Alzheimer's Disease

Progressive, fatal disorder causing memory decline starting with recent memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after damage.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of past memories.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall events from early childhood.

H.M. (Henry Molaison)

Famous amnesia patient who could not form new explicit memories after hippocampus removal.

Encoding Failure

Memory never stored because it was not effectively encoded.

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with learning new information.

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with recalling old information.

Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT)

Feeling of knowing a word but being unable to retrieve it.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when retrieval environment matches learning environment.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when internal state matches learning state.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendency to recall memories consistent with one's current mood.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Cues matching the original learning conditions aid retrieval.

False Memory

Recollection of something that never occurred.

Imagination Inflation

Repeated imagination increases belief that an event happened.

Confabulation

Filling memory gaps with made-up but believed‐true information.

Mandela Effect

Large groups falsely remembering the same inaccurate details.

Misinformation Effect

Memory distortion caused by misleading post-event information.

Source Amnesia (Misattribution)

Forgetting the origin of a memory.

Constructive Memory

Memory built from actual events plus added details, making it vulnerable to distortion.

Priming

Exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.

Perceptual Set

Mental predisposition to perceive certain things and ignore others.

Déjà Vu

Sense of having experienced something before; often due to unnoticed retrieval cues.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Rapid initial forgetting followed by leveling off; demonstrated using nonsense syllables.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to best recall first and last items in a list.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of early items.

Recency Effect

Better recall of most recent items.

Spacing Effect

Long-term retention is better with distributed practice than cramming.

Massed Practice

Cramming; poor long-term retention.

Distributed Practice

Spaced-out studying; excellent long-term retention.

Mnemonics

Memory aids that use imagery or organizational strategies.

Method of Loci

Associating items with specific physical locations.

Peg-Word System

Associating items with a fixed list of number-related words.

Testing Effect

Retrieving information improves memory more than simply studying it.

Metacognition

Awareness of one's own thinking and learning processes.