i wanna cry
Expressivity
Variation in phenotype associated with an allele (severity of the disease can vary) Ex: neurofibromatosis type 1
Autosomal Dominant Inheritance
A single copy of the defective gene produces clinical expression of the disease in both males and females (no carriers)
Autosomal Recessive Inheritance
Both parents must pass on the defective gene to produce an affected (homozygous) male or female child
X-linked recessive inheritance
A male carrying the defective gene on the X chromosome will be affected, but a heterozygous female will be an unaffected carrier
X-linked dominant inheritance
A single copy of the defective gene on the X chromosome is enough to cause the disease in both males and females
Atrophy
decrease in cell size
Hypertrophy
increase in cell size
Hyperplasia
increase in number of cells
Metaplasia
replacement of one mature cell type by another cell type
Dysplasia
deranged cellular growth, can be pre-cancerous
Physiologic (normal), Pathologic (adverse)
Cellular adaptation is a reversible cellular response to accommodate demands and conditions
Reversible Cell Injury
The cell may be able to recover if the damaging factor is removed quickly
Irreversible/ Lethal cell injury
If damage increases/persists, structural changes in the cells/organelles can occur and lead to cell death
Apoptosis
A programmed cell death, does not cause further inflammation
Necrosis
when cells die and cause inflammation and damage/destruction to nearby cells
Gangrene
An area of necrotic tissue, usually associated with a lack or loss of blood supply, that becomes infected with bacteria
Amputation
Gangrenous tissue frequently must be removed by _ to prevent the spread of infection
1.Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
2.decreased plasma osmotic pressure (loss of plasma proteins)
3.increased capillary membrane permeability (ex: Inflammatory response)
4.lymphatic channel obstruction (Lymphedema)
Edema can be caused by:
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
The major hormone that regulates water loss is
1.Compensation : act quickly to temporarily bind H+, removing them from solution (not the body)
2.Exhalation of carbon dioxide. •reduces the level of carbonic acid (a "volatile" acid) in blood, which raises the blood pH
3.Kidney secretion of H+ •can also adjust serum bicarbonate levels.
Three mechanisms control or compensate for pH:
Respiratory acidosis
An increase in carbon dioxide levels (acid) due to respiratory problems
Respiratory Alkalosis
Increased respirations cause a decrease in carbon dioxide (less acid)
Metabolic acidosis
A decrease in bicarbonate ions (base) because of metabolic or renal problems
Metabolic alkalosis
Loss of H+ through the kidneys or the gastrointestinal tract
Compensation
The physiological response that acts to normalize blood pH.
Hypersensitivity
An excessive or inappropriate immune response to an allergen/sensitizing antigen
Type I (Hypersensitivity)
•Immediate (2-30 min after exposure) response driven by IgE
•Reactions range from including skin rashes, hay fever, vomiting, anaphylaxis, and anaphylactic shock
Type II (Hypersensitivity)
Circulating antibodies (IgG and IgM) react with foreign cell surface antigens
Type III (Hypersensitivity)
•Involve antibodies against antigens circulating in the serum.
•the antigen combines with the antibody, forming a complex
•The antigen-antibody complexes are deposited in organs, tissues, joints and cause inflammatory damage
Type IV (Hypersensitivity)
Does not rely on antibodies, mediated by T cells
Neoplasm (AKA tumor)
A cellular growth that is no longer responding to normal body controls
Cancer
A malignant neoplasm
Carcinoma
A malignant tumor located in epithelial tissue
Sarcoma
A malignant tumor located in connective tissue
Prognosis
Expected outcome of the disease. For cancer, can be based on the staging
Benign
•usually consist of differentiated cells that reproduce at a higher-than-normal rate.
•often encapsulated and expands but does not spread
•usually freely moveable on palpation.
•Remains localized, systemic effects are rare
•can become extremely large and, depending on their location in the body, can cause morbidity or be life-threatening.
Malignant
•usually composed of undifferentiated, unorganized, nonfunctional cells
•Cell membranes, including surface antigens, are altered.
•cells have lost cellular connections with each other
•cells often show abnormal mitotic features
•increased uptake of nutrients, depriving normal cells
•Some cancer cells secrete growth factors, which stimulate angiogenesis (the development of new capillaries in the tumor)
•cells infiltrate into surrounding tissue and may metastasize
•Systemic effects often present
•Life threatening due to tissue destruction and tumor spread
Invasion
Local spread, in which the tumor cells grow into adjacent tissue
Metastasis
Spread to distant sites by blood or lymphatic vessels.
Seeding
The spread of cancer cells along membranes, usually in body cavities.
Coma
A state of unconsciousness in which an individual has little or no response to stimuli.
Brain death
No brain function exists; irreversible.
Seizures
A burst of uncontrolled electrical activity between neurons that causes temporary abnormalities in muscle tone or movement, behaviors, sensations, states of awareness, and possibly loss of consciousness
Aphasia
An inability to use or comprehend words
Decorticate responses
May occur in persons with severe damage in the cerebral hemispheres •Rigid flexion of arms, wrists, and fingers, with adducted arms and internal rotation of the hands •Extension, internal rotation, and plantar flexion in lower extremities.
Decerebrate responses
occur in persons with brain stem lesions and CNS depression caused by systemic effects. •All four extremities in rigid extension, with hyperpronation of forearms and plantar flexion of feet.
Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)
A temporary localized reduction of blood flow in the brain. •Recovery usually occurs within 24 hours. •Repeated attacks are frequently a warning of the development of obstruction related to atherosclerosis
Cerebrovascular accidents (CVA stroke)
An infarction of brain tissue
Signs and Symptoms
Of a CVA depend on the location of the obstruction, the size of the artery involved, and the functional area affected
Meningitis
An infection in the meninges (can be bacterial, fungal, protozoal, viral)
Aseptic Meningitis
Meningitis from a viral infection
Dementia
A general term for a progressive failure of many cerebral functions
Primary Brain injury
The direct injury to the brain
Secondary Brain Injury
The changes that evolve over a period of time (from hours to days) after the primary brain injury.
Spinal Shock
The initial period after spinal cord injury, where all conduction ceases in the nerve tracts and in the gray matter
Neurogenic Shock
Caused by the absence of sympathetic activity and unopposed parasympathetic tone (mediated by the intact vagus nerve)
Adenoma (a benign tumor of a gland)
The most common cause of endocrine disorders is the development of an
Type 1 Diabetes
Patient doesn't produce enough insulin, destruction of the pancreatic beta cells in an autoimmune reaction, occurs more frequently in children and adolescents
Type 2 Diabetes
Patient doesn't respond to insulin, later in the disease doesn't make enough insulin., Acquired - lifestyle factors such as poor diet, inactivity, and the presence of pre-diabetes greatly increase a person's risk, occurs more frequently in adults
Gestational Diabetes
May develop during pregnancy and disappear after delivery of the child.
Pernicious Anemia
Most commonly caused by the malabsorption of vitamin B12 owing to a lack of intrinsic factor produced in the glands of the gastric mucosa
Von Willebrand disease
Inherited abnormal gene that controls Von Willebrand factor
Von Willebrand factor
A blood clotting protein made by endothelial cells, helps platelets stick together and adhere to the walls of blood vessels at the site of a wound.
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Causes abnormal blood clotting throughout the body's blood vessels.
Lymphoma
A cancer of lymphocytes
Leukemia
One or more leukocyte types are present as undifferentiated, immature, and/or nonfunctional cells that multiply uncontrollably in the bone marrow, and are released into the circulation
Hodgkin Lymphoma
spreads in an orderly manner from one group of lymph nodes to another.
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Spreads through the lymphatic system in a non-orderly manner.
Coronary Artery Disease
atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries
Angina (chest pain)
occurs when there is a deficit of oxygen to the heart muscle (myocardial ischemia).
Collateral Circulation
The presence of _ may reduce the size of the infarct
ECG (electrocardiogram)
Can be used to detect abnormal electrical activity in the heart.
Left side CHF
If the left ventricle cannot pump all of its blood into the systemic circulation, the normal volume of blood returning from the lungs cannot enter the left side of the heart.
Right side CHF
The right ventricle cannot maintain its output, so less blood proceeds to the left side of the heart and the systemic circulation
Congestion
Develops in the circulation behind the affected ventricle.
Valvular Stenosis
Narrowing of a valve, which restricts the forward flow of blood
Valvular Incompetence
A failure of a valve to close completely, allowing blood to regurgitate or leak backward.
Hypoxemia
Reduced oxygenation of arterial blood
Cheyne-strokes respirations
Apnea alternating regularly with respiratory cycles characterized by gradually increasing and then decreasing rates and depth of breathing
Flail chest
Results from the fracture of several consecutive ribs in more than one place or fracture of the sternum and several consecutive ribs.
Mediastinal flutter
Occurs as the lungs shift back and forth due to pressure changes, the mediastinum is pushed to and from.
Venous Return
The pressure changes and possible kinking of the inferior vena cava interferes with _ to the heart and thus reduces cardiac output
Pneumothorax
The presence of air in the pleural space, caused by a rupture in the visceral pleura or the parietal pleura and chest wall.
Mediastinal shift
Caused by pressure against the mediastinum, compressing and displacing the heart, great vessels, and trachea
Restrictive Lung Disease
Include conditions that make it hard fully expanding their lungs with air
Obstructive Lung Disease
Include conditions that make it hard to exhale all the air in the lungs.
Aspiration
The passage of food, fluid, vomitus, or other foreign material into the trachea and lungs.
Atelectasis
Nonaeration or collapse of a lung or part of a lung causing decreased gas exchange and hypoxia.
Pulmonary Edema
Fluid collecting in the alveoli and interstitial area, interferes with the diffusion of oxygen and with the action of surfactant (airways ultimately collapse)
Asthma
A disease that involves periodic episodes of severe but reversible bronchial obstruction in persons with hypersensitive or hyper responsive airways. •The bronchi and bronchioles respond with 3 changes: 1.Inflammation of the mucosa with edema 2.Contraction of smooth muscle (bronchoconstriction) 3.Increased secretion of thick mucus in the passages
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
A group of chronic respiratory disorders characterized by progressive, irreversible tissue degeneration and obstruction of airflow from the lungs.
Chronic Bronchitis
Chronic inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes; causing irreversible, progressive changes
Emphysema
An abnormal, permanent enlargement of gas-exchange airways (acini) accompanied by destruction of alveolar walls
Barrel Chest
Fixation of the ribs in an inspiratory position and an increased anterior-posterior diameter of the thorax
Blebs or Bullae
Adjacent damaged alveoli coalesce, forming very large air spaces
Pulmonary Embolism
A blood clot (or other mass) that obstructs the pulmonary artery or a branch of it, blocking the flow of blood through the lung tissue.
Pulmonary Infarction/shock.
Larger emboli can cause
Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
Pulmonary artery pressure greater than 25 mm Hg at rest (normal is 15 to 18 mm Hg).
Cor Pulmonale
Right-sided congestive heart failure due to lung disease
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
Involves the periodic flow of gastric contents into the esophagus.