apes unit 1

the major themes of environmental science

* human population growth and how that leads to environmental problems
* sustainability, the environmental goal
* global perspective to solve the many problems arising across the earth and trying to find a global solution
* an urbanizing world and what that means for the environment
* people and nature (how they are interconnected)
* science and values

to preserve the current population while still using sustainable practices we must ….

* expand efficient and sustainable farming practices
* turn to other energy resources besides oil
* reduce the amount of babies being born

sustainability of an ecosystem

an ecosystem is sustainable if we continue its primary functions for a specified time in the future

sustainable economy

economically viable, doesn’t hurt the enviorment and is socially just for all people

* careful management and wide use of the planet and its resources in relation to the management of money and goods

attributes of a sustainable economy

* social, legal and political system that’s dedicated to sustainability, equity and justice
* effective population control, restructuring of energy programs and instituting economic planning

carrying capacity

the maximum number of individuals of a species that can be sustained by an environment without decreasing the capacity of the environment to sustain that same number in the future

Gaia hypothesis

* created by James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis
* says that over the history of life on earth, life has significantly changed the global environment which improves the chances of continuation of life on earth

economic development leads to urbanization

in developed countries, 75% of the population lives in urban areas

growth of mega cities

* 2 in 1950 (NYC and London)
* 22 in 2005

pros of big cities

• usually have extensive public transport

• people live in smaller homes that are easier to heat and cool

• goods travel less distance to get to customers

two paths when it comes to people and nature

* assume the environmental problems are a result of human action and the solution is to simply stop
* scientific analysis → problem solving, accepts the connection of people and nature and looks for long-lasting solutions

examples of people and nature being intimately integrated

* soil is necessary for plants, so therefore its necessary to us
* the atmosphere lets us live through oxygen and protects us from UV rays

\

big idea

a sustainable environment and a sustainable economy might be compatible, that humans and nature are intertwined and success for one needs to include success for the other

* humanness = connected to nature (we drink water and breath air)

precautionary principle

* 1992 the Rio earth summit on sustainable development
* says when there is a threat of serious or irreversible environmental damage, we shouldn’t wait for scientific proof to take action
* adopted by EU and San Fransisco
* being proactive not reactive

utilitarian justification

some aspects of the environment are only valuable because its beneficial economically or is absolutely necessary for survival

ecological justification

the ecosystem is necessary for the species of interest or the system provides some benefit

aesthetic/recreation justification

appreciation of the beauty of nature and the ability to go outside and enjoy it

* gaining legal basis (ex: Alaska recognizing its otters are a recreational attraction and protecting their habitat)

moral justification

our environment has the right to exist and we have a moral obligation to help it

cultural justification

different cultures have many of the same but also different values about the environment

* ex: Buddhist monks have strong environmental ethics and won’t even disturb earth worms

Easter island example of humanity permanently damaging an environment

loss of forest loss of soil → no new trees

Sea otters have an important role for maintaining the kelp forest ecosystem and their disappearance causes the collapse in the functioning of that ecosystem. Because of this they are known as...

keystone species

A species of bird living in the branches of the Acacia tree protect the tree from herbivores and eat the nutrient rich fruits on the tree.

mutualism

Which of the following is the largest reservoir within the hydrologic cycle? 

the ocean

Which organisms have the most available energy in an energy pyramid? 

producers

If 10,000 J of energy is in the producer trophic level, how much would pass on to the primary consumers? 

1000 J

abiotic factors

nonliving parts of the environment

biotic factors

living parts of the enviorment

Habitat

Place where an organism lives out its life; Where it finds shelter, food, and reproduces, etc

niche

* organism’s specific role in a habitat
* Reduces competition with other types of organisms
* Use of resources/functional role
* Affected by organisms tolerance

fundamental niche

Entire set of conditions under which an animal (population, species) can survive and reproduce itself

realized niche

Set of conditions actually used by a given animal (population/species) after interactions with other species (predation and competition) have been taken into account

generalist species

* Able to eat a wide variety of foods within a range of habitats
* Main problem is competition
* Can adapt to changing environments better

specialist species

* Narrow range of habitat and diet
* Not much competition
* Giant panda (main concerns predation and habitat loss)
* tend to do well with constant environments; don’t respond well to changes

Niche Overlap/Resource Partitioning

* If niches overlap, then species may have to compete for resources like food and living space
* Degree that resources are limited determines intensity of competition
* If resources are not limited, then species may overlap in many niche dimensions and still exhibit no competition

competition

negative interactions between species(interspecific competition) or within species (intraspecific competition).

predation

organisms that feed on other organisms

* Prey species increase in population when predator population is low
* As predator populations increase (because of more prey), prey populations decrease

symbiosis

interactions between organisms that may be beneficial or harmful

Interspecific Competition

Competition among members of different species for an important, limiting resource

types of interspecific competition

competitive exclusion and species coexistence

competitive exclusion

* Inevitable elimination from a habitat of different species with identical needs for resources
* This often happens when Invasive species are introduced to endemic species

species coexistence

* Species live in same area
* Adjust behaviors to reduce competition
* birds that feed on insects from tree trunks vs canopy

intraspecific competition

* Competition among members of same species for an important, limiting resource
* Primates in general will compete with members of their own species for food, habitat, reproductive mates.

keystone species

* Species that have major impacts on community functioning
* Not necessarily abundant but has a disproportionate impact on the health of the entire ecosystem

ecosystems engineers

* Organisms that create, modify and maintain habitat
* Ecosystem engineering can alter distribution and abundance of large numbers of plants and animals, and \n significantly modify biodiversity
* Humans are most prolific and dangerous ecosystem engineers

Indicator Species

* Indicator species provide info about overall equilibrium and health of an ecosystem
* Birds b/c: found everywhere and respond quickly to environmental changes

mutualism

type of symbiosis in which both species benefit

commensalism

type of symbiosis in which one species benefits and other species is neither harmed nor benefited

parasitism

type of symbiosis in which one species benefits and the other species is harmed

Photosynthesis

* Ultimate source of energy for biological processes is sun
* Basis of living systems is solar energy captured through light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis
* Use of energy to make living material is called productivity

Primary Productivity

Rate at which energy is bound by photosynthesis, Measured in kcal/m^2/yr

biomass

Amount of living material present at a given time, Measured in g/m

gross production (GPP)

Amount of production before metabolic costs (respiration) are subtracted

net production (NPP)

The amount of production after metabolic costs (respiration) are subtracted.

Most productive temperate systems are ____

marshes, nutrients are continually brought in andwastes are flushed out as water moves through them

first law of thermodynamics

energy is not created or destroyed, but can be transferred from one form to another

second law of thermodynamics

heat flows from high to low temperature objects until equilibrium is reached

Trophic level

each step in transfer of energy

Food chain

steps in the transfer of energy – how matter and energy move through an ecosystem

food web

A network of connected food chains; more complex than a food chain, more realistic b/c most organisms feed on more than one species for food

Autotrophs

make their own food (plants and some bacteria)

Heterotrophs

Organisms that cannot make their own food and must eat other organisms

Decomposers

an organism, especially a soil bacterium, fungus, or \n invertebrate, that break down dead plants and animals

scavengers

an animal that feeds on carrion, dead plant material, or \n refuse.

10% rule

only 10% of energy from one trophic level is able to move up to the next

Evaporation

liquid water changes into gaseous water; occurs when sunlight warms \n the surface of the water

Condensation

process by which water vapor is changed into liquid water; crucial to \n cloud formation. Occurs due to reduction in the energy of the water particles (cooling temps)

Precipitation

Water that falls from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface; water released \n from clouds in various forms (rain, snow, sleet, etc). Water drops in \n clouds condense into bigger drops; when heavy enough they fall from clouds

Infiltration

physical process of water entering the soil - dependent upon soil conditions such as saturation level of the soil as well as the porosity \n and permeability of the soil.

Percolation

movement of water through the soil; occurs after infiltration water moves into the deeper layers of soil until it reaches the water table and below (and becomes groundwater)

Surface Runoff

flow of water from precipitation (or irrigation) that is pulled by gravity \n across land’s surface some runoff may go into the ground and some may flow into surface waters and to the ocean

Transpiration

the release of water from plant leaves; water is absorbed through the root hairs, transported through the plant, and exits through stomata

Evapotranspiration

evaporation of water from the soil AND from plants over a given area

Aquifers

geologic formations made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rocks like limestone. Water can move through these materials because they are permeable - they have large connected spaces. The speed at \n which groundwater flows depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well connected they are.

floodplain

Areas nearest a river that are flooded periodically; areas of nutrient rich soil from frequent deposition of river sediments. Agriculture thrives on floodplains and riparian (riverside) habitats

ground water

water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand, and rock. It is stored for various times (some short term, some long term) and moves slowly through aquifers

challenges when establishing national parks

* requirement of new laws
* need for international support
* native people already live there

the possible solutions to conserve national parks

making conservation of habits an economic benefit

environmental economics

persuading society to act in a way that benefits the environment, doesn’t pollute the environment and keeping our resources sustainable in a democratic framework

intangible factor

something you value but you can’t touch

public-service functions (nature capital)

such as nature cleaning air and soil cleaning itself

colony collapse disorder

where many of a hive’s worker bees disappear (which makes food prices go up)

tragedy of the commons

individuals will use shared resources in their own self-interest rather than in keeping with the common good, thereby depleting the resources (commons: publicly owned land with public access for private uses)

resource sustainability

harvesting or using only the net biological productivity each year

indirect cause

costs that are not directly accountable to a cost object (hidden costs)

carrying capacity

the changes in population are because of the population’s size in relation to a maximum (s-shaped logistic growth)

maximum sustainable yield (MSY)

max growth rate that a population could sustain indefinitely

maximum sustainable yield population

the population size at which the maximum growth occurs

minimum viable population

the smallest population that can maintain its self and its genetic variability indefinitely

optimum sustainable population

population size between a minimum and carry capacity

in a logistic curve

* the greatest production occurs when population is 1/2 its carrying capacity
* impossible to keep a wild population at a specific number and over calculating = growth decline

in a logistic population

the population is described simply as a total number (all the individuals are the same)

wildlife management approaches

* time series + historical range of variation
* census taking in certain areas
* age structure of useful information
* shifts towards younger ages and decline in catches → exploitation to where the animals can’t grow old
* harvests as an estimate of numbers
* catch per unit effort

catch per unit effort

assumes same effort is excreted by all harvesters and they have the same technology (which can calculate pop)

endangered species

any species that is in danger of extinction (US endangered species act of 1973)

threatened species

any species that can become an endangered species in the foreseeable future

local extinction

a species has disappeared from only part of its range

global extinction

a species can no longer be found anywhere

population risks

variations in population rates of a low abundance species

environmental species

variation in physical/biological environment (meaning difference in predators, prey and food source)

natural catastrophe

sudden change in the environment that is not caused by humans