AP Psych Unit 1.1 - 1.4

nature-nurture issue

longstanding controversy over whether genetics or upbringing inform traits and behaviors

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits of an an organism that enable them to survive will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

environment

every non genetic influence

heredity

the genetic transfer of traits

genes

the biochemical units of heredity

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism

identical twins

developed from a single fertilized egg - genetically identical

fraternal twins

developed from separate fertilized eggs

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (ie environment) depends on another factor (like hereditary)

epigenetics

the study of the molecular mechanism by which environments can influence genetic expression

nervous system

the body’s electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of the cns and pns

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect to the cns and the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural “cables” and connect the cns with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord, communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the pns that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving energy

reflex

a simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus

neuron

a nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus, the cell’s life-support center

dendrites

a neurons bushy, branching extension that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons- enables faster transmission speed

glial cells

cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons- also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse (electrical charge) that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired

all or none response

a neuron is either firing or it isn’t

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite/cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap, influence the generation of neural impulses

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

a molecule that blocks/inhibits a neurotransmitter’s action

endocrine system

the “slow” chemical communication system- secretes hormones

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by endocrine glands

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perception or mood

substance abuse disorder

addiction and dependency on a substance despite its disruptions

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

tolerance

requiring more of a substance to experience its effects due to repeated usage

addiction

compulsive substance use/dysfunctional behavior

withdrawal

the effects of not performing an addictive behavior/taking an addictive substance

barbiturates

drugs that depress the cns, reducing anxiety and impairing memory/judgement

opioids

depress neural activity, lessen pain

stimulants

drugs that excite the nervous system and speed up body functions

hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness after a brush with death

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

biopsychosocial approach

integrated biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis

levels of analysis

differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change especially during childhood by reorganizing after damage

lesion

tissue destruction in the brain

EEG

amplified recoding of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface

MEG

brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

ct scan

a series of x-rays taken from different angles and combined together

PET

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

mri

uses radio waves and magnetic fields to produce computer generated images of soft tissue/brain anatomy

fMRI

reveals brain blood flow and brain activity

forebrain

cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus- cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, voluntary movements

brainstem

begins where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull - automatic survival functions

medulla

hindbrain structure - base of the brainstem - heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

limbic system - directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus - filters information and controls arousal

cerebellum

hindbrain - processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, enables nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

forebrain - amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, pituitary gland - emotions and drives

amygdala

limbic system - two - linked to emotion

hypothalamus

limbic system - directs maintenance activities (eating, body temp) linked to emotion and reward

hippocampus

limbic system - processes explicit/conscious memories

cerebral cortex

neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres - ultimate control and information processing center

frontal lobes

cerebral cortex - enables linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, executive functioning (front of head)

parietal lobes

cerebral cortex - receives sensory input for touch and body position (back top)

occipital lobes

cerebral cortex - processes visual information (back furthest)

temporal lobes

cerebral cortex - auditory areas, language processing (bottom middle)

motor cortex

cerebral cortex - controls voluntary movements (rear of frontal lobes)

somatosensory cortex

cerebral cortex - processes body touch and movement sensations (front of parietal)

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in higher mental functions like learning, thinking, and speaking

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres