Economic development: trade, exploration prosperity and depression
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What proportion of people in fifteenth-century England lived off the land
About 90 per cent lived more or less directly from farming.
How did England's population compare to earlier periods
Urbanisation had changed little since Anglo-Saxon times.
What was England's population at the start of the fifteenth century
Around 2.2 million.
How many people lived in towns around 1500
About 10 per cent of the population.
Which city was the largest in England during this period
London, with a population probably exceeding 50,000.
How many provincial towns had populations over 3000
No more than 20.
Which towns besides London had the largest populations
Norwich (over 10,000), and Bristol, York, and Coventry (8000-10,000).
What was England's major industry in 1500
The cloth industry.
How many people did the cloth industry employ full-time by 1500
About 30,000 people, or 1.3 per cent of the population.
How did the cloth industry support the rural economy
It provided part-time work that helped sustain peasant agriculture.
What were the other significant industries in England around 1500
Mining (tin, lead, coal), metalworking, leatherwork, shipbuilding, and papermaking.
What role did agriculture play in the economy
It was the dominant sector and far outweighed industry in national economic contribution.
How frequent were poor harvests in a normal decade
One in four was deficient, and one in six was very bad.
What was the impact of poor harvests on the economy
They caused extreme price fluctuations.
Did Henry VII have a formal economic policy
No, he focused on building personal wealth, and economic legislation came mainly from Parliament as a result of the private lobbying of merchants
What caused a recovery in land income in the 1480s and 1490s
Population growth following the decline after the Black Death.
Why did sheep farming increase in the late 15th century
Arable farming was less profitable and wool demand increased with trade and population growth.
How was England agriculturally divided
Into a lowland zone (south and east) and a highland zone (north and west).
What was the most common farming method in the lowland zone
Mixed farming, combining crops and livestock.
Where was pastoral farming common in the lowland zone
In woodland areas and the Fenlands.
What farming specialism developed in the Fenlands
Horse breeding.
Where was open-field husbandry mainly found
In grain-growing regions of the southeast and east Midlands.
What is open-field husbandry
Tenants farmed strips in shared fields and held common rights on a manorial estate.
What were common rights
Legal rights allowing tenants to use common land, usually for grazing animals.
What happened to open-field husbandry in the sixteenth century
It faced pressure from land enclosure.
What impact did the wool and cloth trade have on farming
It made sheep farming more profitable, leading to enclosure.
How did enclosure affect peasants
It removed their land access and rights, often leaving them destitute.
Was enclosure common in the late 15th century
No, it became more widespread in the early 16th century.
What were the social and political effects of enclosure
It led to moral outcry and political pressure.
Did English agriculture undergo major changes by 1500
No, it remained largely unchanged at the turn of the century.
What were the Merchants of the Staple
A company incorporated by royal charter in 1319 that controlled the export of wool, mainly through Calais.
Why did the importance of the Merchants of the Staple decline
Because the wool trade declined and finished cloth exports increased.
What was fulling
A process in cloth making that cleaned and thickened woollen cloth by removing oils and dirt.
What percentage of English exports was the cloth trade responsible for
About 90%.
How did the cloth trade perform in the late fifteenth century
It flourished and increased by over 60% in volume during Henry VII's reign, according to Jack Lander.
What did England export in the earlier part of the century
Mainly raw wool through east-coast ports and Calais.
What became the dominant export by the late fifteenth century
Finished cloth.
What industries grew as a result of finished cloth exports
Weaving, fulling, and dyeing.
Where was weaving typically done
As a domestic process in rural areas.
What effect did the cloth industry have on rural communities
It provided employment and supplemented peasant incomes.
Which towns became prosperous due to the cloth trade
Lavenham in Suffolk and Lewes in Sussex.
Which cities declined due to shifts in the cloth trade
Winchester and Lincoln.
Where did the cloth industry shift to
Smaller market towns and villages in East Anglia, Yorkshire's West Riding, and the West Country.
What organisation exported most finished cloth from London
The Merchant Adventurers.
What did the Merchant Adventurers' trade dominance reinforce
London's commercial power and trade link with Antwerp.
Why was Antwerp significant in the period
It was Europe's main commercial and financial centre.
When were the Merchant Adventurers founded
1407
Who dominated the Merchant Adventurers
Members of the Mercers Company, the wealthiest London guild.
How did the Merchant Adventurers work with the Crown
They represented industry interests and helped negotiate trade treaties like Intercursus Magnus and Malus.
Why couldn't the Merchant Adventurers fully control trade
Because of the trading privileges of the Hanseatic League.
What was the Hanseatic League
A commercial union of northern European cities that controlled Baltic trade.
When were the Hanseatic League's privileges renewed
In 1474 and again in 1504.
Why did Henry VII renew the Hanseatic League's privileges in 1504
To prevent them from supporting Yorkist claimant the Earl of Suffolk.
What did Jack Lander say about the 1504 treaty with the Hanseatic League
That the concessions were disproportionate to the actual threat from the de la Poles.
What is metallurgy
The scientific study of the extraction, refining, alloying and fabrication of metals, and of their structure and properties.
What industry did England remain dependent on for trade
The cloth industry.
Why did other English industries struggle to grow
They were small-scale and could not compete with continental rivals.
Which countries were superior to England in mining and metallurgy
Germany and Bohemia.
Which countries were superior to England in shipbuilding
Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands.
What characterised most English industrial activities
They were small-scale craft operations with little capital investment.
What basic needs did most small industries supply
Food and shelter.
Which industry required more capital investment than most others
Mining.
Where was tin mined in England
Cornwall.
Where was lead mined in England
The high Pennines and the Mendips.
Where was coal mined in England
Durham and Northumberland.
Where was iron ore mined and smelted
The Weald of Sussex and Kent.
When was a blast furnace recorded in the Weald
In 1496.
What was coal from the northeast mainly used for
Domestic and industrial fuel in London.
Was coal exported
Yes, a small amount was exported to Germany and the Netherlands.
What technological development boosted mining production
Basic pumping technology.
Where was this pumping technology first recorded
Finchale in County Durham in 1486.
What are sectional interests
The specific economic or political concerns of particular groups within English society, such as merchants or regional industries.
What does it mean to extort
To forcefully obtain concessions, such as treaties or payments, using threats or coercion—used here to describe how Henry VII pressured Philip of Burgundy into signing Intercursus Malus.
What was the Crown's approach to trade during Henry VII's reign
Inconsistent—Henry prioritised political stability and dynasty security over coherent trade policy.
What was Henry VII interested in maximising
Customs revenue from imports and exports to boost royal finances.
What was Henry VII willing to sacrifice in favour of securing the dynasty
Profitable trade routes and merchant interests, particularly when foreign threats like Warbeck arose.
How did Henry VII accommodate Parliament's legislation
He allowed economic laws to be passed that favoured powerful groups, like merchant guilds or regional producers.
What major trade issue occurred under Henry VII
A trade embargo on the Netherlands from 1493-1496 due to Margaret of Burgundy's support for Perkin Warbeck.
Why did Henry VII impose the trade embargo in 1493
To punish and politically isolate the Netherlands for supporting Yorkist pretender Perkin Warbeck.
How were merchants directed to trade during the embargo
Through Calais, which disrupted direct trade with Antwerp and harmed merchant profits.
What did the Netherlands do in response to the embargo
Retaliated with their own restrictions on English goods.
What treaty ended the embargo with the Netherlands
The Intercursus Magnus, agreed in 1496 and finalised by 1499.
What did Intercursus Magnus allow English merchants to do
Trade freely across the Duke of Burgundy's territories (except Flanders) with legal protections.
What did Intercursus Magnus ensure for merchants
Legal justice for merchants and systems to settle disputes fairly and efficiently.
When was Intercursus Magnus confirmed
In 1499 by Philip of Burgundy, solidifying commercial peace.
What was Intercursus Malus
An aggressive trade treaty imposed on Philip of Burgundy in 1506, demanding better terms for English merchants.
Did Intercursus Malus become fully operative
No, it was never enforced and was replaced by the terms of Intercursus Magnus.
What happened to trading terms after Intercursus Malus
They returned to those established by Intercursus Magnus.
Why did Henry try to reimpose the embargo in 1503
Because the Earl of Suffolk's Yorkist claim gained support in Burgundy again.
What did trade treaties under Henry VII generally reflect
That diplomatic and dynastic goals (e.g. isolating Yorkists) were more important than merchant prosperity.
When were trading restrictions from Edward IV's reign removed
In 1486, early in Henry's reign, to promote commercial recovery.
Why were trading restrictions reimposed in 1487
Because of England's military support for Brittany against France.
What treaty helped remove most of the restrictions again
The Treaty of Etaples (1492), a peace treaty with France that included improved trade conditions.
What happened to remaining trading restrictions in 1497
They were mostly abolished, promoting freer trade by the end of the decade.
What showed the failure of English trading policy in the Mediterranean
Attempts to expand trade there collapsed, as English merchants couldn't compete with Italians.
Which group limited English trade in the Baltic
The Hanseatic League, who retained strong trading privileges from treaties in 1474 and 1504.
What did the Navigation Acts of 1485 and 1489 aim to do
Encourage the use of English ships for importing and exporting goods, strengthening domestic shipping.
What was the goal of the Navigation Acts
To protect and grow the English shipping industry by reducing dependence on foreign vessels.
How effective were the Navigation Acts
Only partly effective—foreign ships still carried much of England's overseas trade despite the laws.
Who was John Cabot
A Genoese merchant and explorer who sailed under the English flag and discovered Newfoundland in 1497.